Psychology Research Methods

laboratory experiment

IV, DV, strict controls; controlled environment with no outside factors; NOT realistic to normal, natural circumstances

control conditions

independent variable is absent so that this "neutral" group can be compared to the other groups

experiment

investigation looking for a casual relationship in which the IV is manipulated so we can measure the DV

independent measures design

different group of participants for every variable

demand characteristics

participants may be influenced to think or act a certain way; reduces validity

random allocation

participants placed in random group so they have an equal chance of being in any condition

repeated measures design

every participant performs in every level of IV

participant variable

differences between individual people

order effects

practice and fatigue affect performance

practice effects

participants become familiar with the conditions of the study and improve

fatigue effects

participants become tired and bored of the process as time goes on

counterbalancing

in a repeated-measures experiment, presenting the levels of the independent variable to participants in different sequences to control for order effects

matched pairs design

participants arranged in pairs; each are similar and everyone does their own part of the IV

standardization

making sure the conditions of the experiment are as controlled as possible to account for differences in the subjects

reliability

consistent results

validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to (test what you're supposed to be)

field experiment

experiment but in the subjects' natural setting

ecological validitu

applying findings to a more universal topic

ecological validity

quality of studies representative of naturally occurring behavior

natural experiment

experimenter cannot manipulate any variables

uncontrolled variable

can taint results and confuse researcher

informed consent/right to withdrawal

self-explanatory

privacy/confidentiality

all personal information is to be kept within the study and not released

self-report

participants answer questions about themselves

closed questions

quantitative data, no expansion on answers

open questions

qualitative data, expansion allowed

inter-rater reliability

indicates how consistent scores are likely to be if the responses are scored by two or more raters using the same item, scale, or instrument

social desirability bias

trying to make yourself look good by guessing the motive behind test questions

filler questions

try to disguise the true meaning behind the questions and deter subjects from guessing what they are about

structured interview

all subjects asked the exact same questions in the exact same manner to maintain consistency and control; may be scripted; often recorded

unstructured interview

the next question is determined by the participant's response to the previous one; "loosey goosey"

semi-structured interview

mixture of open and closed questions

subjectivity

biased, opinionated, personal to each interviewer

objectivity

free of bias, consistent throughout all researchers or participants

naturalistic observation

observed in a natural environment without any controlled factors

controlled observation

researcher controls the environment

unstructured observation

whole range of behavior is recorded; usually performed at the beginning as a "test run" = "pilot'

behavioral categories

the specific set of observations that are recorded in systematic observational research; pre-chosen behaviors to seek out

structured observation

researchers only look for specific behaviors

inter-observer reliability

consistency between two researchers watching the same event; will they produce the same records?

participant observer

researcher observes from the POV of a participant

non-participant observer

researcher observers by simply watching from afar

overt observer

researcher is obviously a researcher; subjects are able to see and interact with them

covert observer

researcher observes while being disguised or hidden; often used with children to avoid distraction

correlation

looks for a relationship between two variables in which a change in one is related to a change in another

positive correlation

increase in one variable is responsible or accompanied by an increase in the other

negative correlation

increase in one variable is responsible or accompanied by a decrease in the other

experimental condition

situations of the experiment which represent different levels of the IV; compared to each other or the control

hypothesis

testable statement predicting differences between levels of the IV or between variables; testable prediction of the study's outcome

alternative hypothesis

the hypothesis that a proposed result is true a particular investigation

directional hypothesis

one-tailed; hypothesis that states the direction of the difference or relationship (increase or decrease)

nondirectional hypothesis

two-tailed; predicting only that two variables will be related, but we don't know how yet

null hypothesis

any correlations or differences are due to chance

operationalization

defining variables in practical terms

situational variable

confounding variable due to a natural aspect of the environment

control

used to avoid results that are outcomes of multiple variables; raises validity by measuring different outcomes independently

population

total group from which a sample is drawn

sample

group selected from the population to participate in a study

volunteer (self-selectedness)

participants may be invited; they volunteer willingly by replying to an invite

random sample

all population members have the same chance of being chosen

quantitative data

numerical results, quantity, rates and scores

qualitative data

descriptions, quality, open questions, observations

measure of central tendency

mean, median, mode

mode

the most frequent scores in a data set

mean

average score

median

middle score value when all numbers are arranged from smallest to largest

measure of spread

description of statistical variation

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

standard deviation

average distance of each value from the mean

bar chart

graph used for data in discrete (non-related) categories; gaps in-between each bar to indicate non-correlation

histogram

looks like a bar chart, but does NOT have spaces because all data is related; shows distribution

scatter graph

displays data from a correlational study; dots represent where the IV and DV cross

normal distribution

bell curve; mean, median, and mode are all at the apex; symmetrical

ethical issues

problems and research that raise concerns about the welfare of participants

ethical guidelines

advice and suggests for researchers to use when doing studies

debriefing

giving participants full explanations as to what they will undergo, along with potential consequences

protection of participants

participants should not be exposed to any non-regular dangers; they must leave in at least as good of a condition as when they arrived

deception

deliberate misinformation of participants

generalizability

how widely findings of a study can apply to the world

test-retest

measure a study's consistency by replicating it to compare results