Chapter review 1-5

Geography (Physical Geography)

Study of Earth's physical elements and processes through spatial analysis.

Spatial Analysis

Examining patterns, interactions, and variations across space.

Scientific Method OQHEACC

Observation → Question → Hypothesis → Experiment → Analysis → Conclusion → Communication.

Observation

Noticing and describing phenomena as the first step in the scientific method.

Question

A query or inquiry that arises from observations, guiding investigation.

Hypothesis

A testable explanation based on observations.

Experiment

A test designed to evaluate a hypothesis.

Analysis

Evaluation and interpretation of data collected during an experiment.

Conclusion

A final judgment drawn from the analysis of results.

Communication

Sharing the results and implications of a study.

Theory

A well-supported explanation that explains how and why something happens.

Law

A concise statement of what will happen, often expressed mathematically.

Open System

Exchanges energy or matter with surroundings (e.g., a forest).

Closed System

No exchange with surroundings; Earth is closed for matter.

Negative Feedback

Discourages change and stabilizes a system (e.g., sweating to cool the body).

Positive Feedback

Encourages change and amplifies system shifts (e.g., melting ice lowers albedo).

Latitude

Distance north or south of the equator; forms parallels.

Longitude

Distance east or west of the Prime Meridian; forms meridians.

Parallels

Lines running east-west that measure latitude.

Meridians

Lines running north-south that measure longitude.

Maps

Representations of Earth with a title, date, legend, scale, and direction.

Topographic Map

Map with contour lines showing elevation.

Contour Line

Line of equal elevation; close = steep, wide = gentle.

Rule of V’s

Contour lines form 'V' shapes pointing upstream.

Map Scale

Relationship between map distance and real-world distance (verbal, RF, or bar).

Projection

Flattening Earth onto a map; always causes distortion.

Distortion

Inaccuracy in shape, area, distance, or direction due to projection.

Active Remote Sensing

Sends energy (e.g., radar, LiDAR) to collect data.

Passive Remote Sensing

Collects natural energy (e.g., satellite images).

GIS

Geographic Information Systems; layered digital maps.

Processes

Ordered actions that shape Earth.

Elements

Basic parts of the environment (air, water, land, life).

Equilibrium

System balance when inputs = outputs.

Steady State

Equilibrium; system remains balanced over time.

Threshold

Tipping point where a system changes state.

Cross-Sectional Map

Side view of rock structures and layers.

Solar System

A system consisting of the Sun, eight planets, moons, asteroids, comets, and dust bound by gravity; the Sun contains about 99.8% of the Solar System's mass.

Planets in order from the Sun

Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune.

Terrestrial Planets

Inner planets that are small, dense, rocky, and metal-rich (Mercury–Mars).

Jovian Planets

Outer planets that are large, low density, and composed of gas or ice giants (Jupiter–Neptune).

Nebular Theory

The Solar System formed from a collapsing gas/dust nebula that formed the Sun and planets.

Accretion

Matter clumping together: grains → boulders → planetesimals → planets.

Sunspots

Dark, cooler spots on the Sun caused by magnetic storms; follow an ~11-year cycle.

Solar Flare

Explosions of hot gases/energy near sunspots that can disrupt radio signals.

Solar Wind

A constant stream of charged particles from the Sun’s corona; takes about 3 days to reach Earth.

Magnetosphere

Earth’s magnetic field generated by the core; deflects solar wind and protects from radiation.

Aurora

Northern/Southern Lights produced when solar wind interacts with Earth's atmosphere.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Range of energy waves; Sun emits shortwave radiation while Earth emits longwave radiation.

Shortwave Radiation

Incoming solar energy (UV, visible).

Longwave Radiation

Earth’s re-radiated infrared energy.

Energy Budget

Balance of incoming solar (shortwave) energy and outgoing Earth (longwave) energy.

Insolation

Incoming solar radiation; concentrated at the equator, weaker at the poles.

Reasons for Seasons

Caused by Revolution, Rotation, Tilt (23.4°), Axial Parallelism, and Sphericity.

Revolution

Earth’s orbit around the Sun; about 365 days.

Rotation

Earth spins on its axis approximately every 24 hours.

Tilt

Earth’s axis tilted about 23.4°, causing seasons.

Axial Parallelism

Axis always points toward Polaris (North Star).

Sphericity

Earth’s roundness leads to uneven solar energy distribution.

Altitude

Sun’s angle above the horizon.

Declination

Latitude receiving overhead sun rays on a given day.

Fusion

Nuclear fusion powering the Sun; hydrogen fuses into helium, releasing energy.

Galaxy

A large collection of stars, gas, and dust; we live in the Milky Way.

Milky Way

The galaxy that contains our Solar System.

Energy

Capacity to do work (light, heat, motion).

Magnetic Field

Earth’s magnetic field produced by the core; source of the magnetosphere.

Star

Ball of gas powered by fusion; the Sun is a star.

Sun

Star at the center of the solar system; composed mainly of ~70–75% H and ~25–30% He.

Air Pressure

The force exerted by the weight of air above a location; decreases with increasing altitude.

Air Density

Mass of air per unit volume; decreases with altitude as air becomes thinner.

Composition

The makeup of the atmosphere in terms of gases and their abundances (major gases and trace gases).

Dominant Gases

Nitrogen (N2) and Oxygen (O2) together make up about 99% of the atmosphere (N2 ≈ 78%, O2 ≈ 21%).

Nitrogen

N2, a major atmospheric gas comprising about three quarters of the atmosphere.

Oxygen

O2, a major atmospheric gas comprising about one fifth of the atmosphere.

Ozone

O3, triatomic oxygen; in the stratosphere forms the ozone layer that shields Earth from UV radiation; at ground level it is a pollutant in polluted air.

Ozone Hole

Region of significant ozone depletion, notably over Antarctica, linked to CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances.

CFCs

Chlorofluorocarbons; human-made compounds that destroy ozone in the stratosphere by releasing chlorine radicals.

Clean Air Act

U.S. federal law governing air pollution, setting standards and regulating emissions to improve air quality.

Pollutant

A substance that harms air quality and health; examples include CO, NOx, SO2, O3, PM.

Anthropogenic Sources of Pollution

Pollution sources arising from human activities (vehicles, power plants, industry).

Natural Sources of Pollution

Pollution sources arising from natural events (wildfires, dust storms, volcanic eruptions).

Photochemical Smog

Smog formed by sunlight-driven reactions of NOx and VOCs, producing ozone in the troposphere.

PM2.5

Fine particulate matter with diameter ≤ 2.5 micrometers; can penetrate deep into the lungs.

PM10

Particulate matter with diameter ≤ 10 micrometers; can irritate the respiratory system.

Particulate

Solid or liquid particles suspended in air, including dust, soot, and aerosols.

Temperature Inversion

A weather condition where a layer of warm air traps cooler air near the surface, trapping pollutants.

Troposphere

The lowest atmospheric layer where weather occurs; temperature generally decreases with altitude.

Stratosphere

The second atmospheric layer; temperature rises with altitude due to ozone heating; contains the ozone layer.

Mesosphere

The third atmospheric layer; temperature decreases with altitude; where most meteors burn up.

Noctilucent Clouds

High-altitude, bright ice clouds seen near polar regions during twilight, in the mesosphere.

Gravity

The force of attraction that pulls objects toward Earth; air density decreases with height due to gravity.

Temperature

A measure of the thermal energy of a substance; in the atmosphere it generally changes with altitude (usually decreases in the lower layers, with variations in higher layers).

Atmospheric Circulation

System of large-scale air movement driven by heating imbalance between the tropics (surplus) and poles (deficit).

Air Pressure

Force of air per unit area, arising from the motion, size, and number of air molecules.

Isobar

Line on a weather map that connects points of equal air pressure.

Driving Forces of Wind

Gravity, Pressure Gradient, Coriolis Effect, and Friction that initiate and shape wind.

Gravitational Force

Force of gravity that compresses the atmosphere; without it there would be no atmospheric pressure.

Pressure Gradient Force

Air accelerates from regions of high pressure to low pressure.

Coriolis Force

Deflects moving air to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.

Frictional Force

Drag from Earth’s surface that slows and redirects the wind.

Equatorial Low (ITCZ)

Convergence and rising moist air near the equator with high rainfall.