DISCRIMINATION!!

Label or primary potency

Linguist: Allport

- Refers to the application of a social label to someone/something so powerful as to overshadow all other aspects of who/what they are.

E.g. bedridden, terrorist

Imagined community

Linguist: Anderson.

- Refers to a socially-constructed community that is imagined by people who comprise it based on their shared identity, beliefs and practices.

- Exists primarily in the minds of its members rather than through face-to-face interaction.

E.g. Incels (involuntary celibates).

- Members share a collective identity ("I am an incel") and ideology. They consume the same memes, posts, and narratives, which reinforces the sense of belonging.

- These communities are limited (membership is self-defined) and imagined (most members never meet)

Metaphor-induced reasoning

Linguist: Boroditsky

Refers to the belief that metaphors not only help us make sense of reality but also shape our perceptions of it.

E.g. "Climate change as a ticking time bomb": urgency framing → prioritises immediate action, emergency measures.

Identity practices

Linguist: Bucholtz & Hall

Refers to the ways individuals construct and perform their social identities through language and interaction.

- Positive identity practices → define who you are, emphasising connection to an in-group (E.g. using corporate jargon at work → aligns with professional identity).

- Negative identity practices → define who you are not, emphasising distance from an out-group (E.g. mocking another regional accent → defines self as not part of that out-group)

Verbal hygiene

Linguist: Cameron

Refers to the act of advocating a change in language use to bring about social change.

E.g. "illegal alien" → "undocumented migrant": Frame immigration debates more humanely

Critical Metaphor Analysis

Linguist: Charteris-Black

Refers to the theory that metaphors reflect and reinforce existing beliefs of those who use them.

E.g. "War on Terror" → frames military action as moral and urgent, reinforcing government authority and legitimising conflict

Manufacture of consent

Linguist: Chomsky

Refers to the ability of the media to systematically shape public opinion on an industrial scale, given its reach

E.g. Framing health campaigns with fear appeal → encourages compliance with public health policies

The Self vs. the Other

Linguist: de Beauvoir

Self: refers to the socially-constructed sense of being that is shared by the members of the dominant in-group, defined in relation to the other.

Other: refers to the socially-constructed representation of the subordinate out-group by the self.

E.g. Patriarchal norms define women as "Other": females often portrayed as inferior, emotional, dependent

Interdiscursivity

Linguist: Fairclough

Refers to the act of drawing on elements from other discourses in the production of the text, which can then frame its interpretation.

E.g. News report drawing on scientific discourse → enhances credibility, frames issue as evidence-based

Linguistic reflectionism

Linguist: Fairclough

Refers to the theory that thought precedes language and will therefore mirror reality

Naturalisation

Linguist: Fairclough

Refers to the process through which a particular interpretation of reality becomes embedded in the public imagination.

- Makes ideological positions appear natural, inevitable, and unquestionable, rather than socially constructed.

E.g. Using the phrase "the market demands" naturalises the idea that markets have agency and authority, obscuring the fact that they are shaped by human decisions and policies

Recontextualisation

Linguist: Fairclough

Refers to the transfer, decontextualisation and semantic modification of an element from one discourse to another, which can reframe one's understanding of the discourse around a preferred narrative.

E.g. The language of warfare ("targets," "strategy," "campaigns") recontextualised into marketing and management reframes business as a competitive battle, legitimising aggressive market behaviour.

Power/knowledge

Linguist: Foucault

Refers to the symbiotic relationship between power and knowledge, where power can define what knowledge is, the restriction of which can then entrench one's power.

E.g. "Fair skin" creams (e.g., in South Asia, East Asia, Africa).

- Knowledge claim: light skin = beauty, status, success.

- Power effect: reinforces colonial histories and racial hierarchies, creating billion-dollar industries that profit from colourism

Labelling

Linguist: Goffman

Refers to the theory that identity and/or the behaviour of individuals can be influenced by the language used to describe them.

- Labelling often leads to stigma or self-fulfilling prophecies, reinforcing social inequalities.

E.g. Women labelled as "bossy" for showing leadership are discouraged from authority roles, while men are called "assertive."

Hegemony

Linguist: Gramsci.

Refers to a set of shared perspectives and values that constitute what is "common sense", which is perpetuated by an in-group as a means of entrenching their dominance. Power is maintained not just through coercion but through consent, as people accept dominant ideologies as natural and inevitable.

E.g. the idea that women are "naturally" suited for care work while men are "naturally" suited for leadership roles. This "common sense" division reinforces patriarchy.

Stereotypes

Linguist: Hall

Refers to the discursive construction of people or groups through oversimplified representations, which present traits as inherent, fixed, and unchanging. Stereotypes reduce complexity, reinforce social hierarchies, and often legitimise marginalisation by making inequalities seem "natural."

E.g. Villains in films are often given foreign accents, perpetuating stereotypes of outsiders as dangerous.

Conceptual Metaphor Theory

Linguist: Lakoff

Refers to the theory that metaphors can be used to make sense of reality by mapping a more tangible and more simplistic source domain onto a more intangible and more complex target domain.

E.g. "Fighting cancer" → war (source) mapped onto illness (target), framing patients as soldiers and treatment as combat. E.g. "Cold War" → war (source) mapped onto geopolitical tension (target), framing it as a battle with sides, strategies, and winners/losers.

Invariance principle

Linguist: Lakoff & Turner

Refers to the theory that metaphors can only provide an incomplete representation of reality, as it is only able to reflect the similarities between the source domain and target domain, which is not always able to fully describe the referent in the target domain.

E.g. "Bipolar War" - the idea of two opposing poles fits neatly from physics → geopolitics. It captures the clear division between the US and USSR. However, the metaphor ignores nuances like internal conflicts & shifting alliances.

Othering

Linguist: Levinas.

Refers to creating an out-group by foregrounding their differences in relation to the in-group, which can result in their exclusion from wider society.

E.g. Terms like "tomboy" or "sissy" mark deviation from normative gender behaviour.

Discourse History of Metaphors

Linguist: Musolff

Refers to the idea that metaphors are rarely isolated; they often draw on consistent, recurring themes, with source domains that are embodied and tangible, shaping how abstract concepts are understood over time.

- Metaphors carry historical and cultural meanings, reinforcing certain ways of thinking and framing issues consistently across discourse.

E.g. War metaphors in politics: terms like "battle against poverty" or "fight against terrorism" draw from physical conflict (tangible source domain) to structure understanding of abstract issues over decades.

Euphemism treadmill

Linguist: Pinker

Refers to the theory that euphemisms tend to gradually acquire the same pejorative connotations as the original terms they replaced, which would necessitate coining new euphemisms.

- Language intended to soften or neutralise a concept often fails, showing how social attitudes are embedded in words.

E.g. Disability: "Handicapped" → "disabled" → "differently-abled". Ethnicity: "Colored" → "minority" → "person of colour". Death: "Passed away" → "departed" → "no longer with us"

Linguistic relativism

Linguist: Sapir-Whorf

Refers to the theory that language and thought share a 2-way relationship where both can influence each other to some degree.

E.g. Colour perception: Languages with fewer colour terms may lead speakers to group colours differently or pay less attention to subtle distinctions.

Ideological square

Linguist: van Dijk.

Othering via positive self-presentation and negative other-presentation

Linguistic determinism

Linguist: Wittgenstein.

Refers to the theory that language precedes thought and will therefore shape reality

Ideology

Linguist: Althusser.

Refers to the imaginary relationship between an individual and the real conditions of their existence, which is always mediated by their beliefs and values, which only provide a partial representation of their lived reality

Interpellation

Linguist: Althusser.

Refers to the process through which an individual is transformed into a subject through ideology, which will shape what they do and think.

- Ideology becomes internalised, making social norms and power relations seem natural and self-evident.

E.g. Language & Politics: Citizens are addressed as "responsible voters", shaping how they see their civic duty and act politically.

Language & Education: Students are called "future leaders", encouraging conformity to institutional goals.

Doxa

Linguist: Bourdieu

Refers to a set of beliefs and values that are taken to be the "self-evident truth" in society.

- Helps maintain social order and power structures by making certain ideologies seem uncontested and normal.

E.g. Language & Gender: The belief that women are naturally suited to caregiving and men to leadership roles.

Orthodoxy

Linguist: Bourdieu

Refers to the set of beliefs and values that are considered to be widely accepted, but not to the point where they are unquestionable

Heterodoxy

Linguist: Bourdieu

Refers to the set of beliefs and values that challenge those which are considered to be doxa and/or orthodoxy

Habitus

Linguist: Bourdieu

Refers to entrenched beliefs and values that an individual has, which subconsciously shape what they think and do.

E.g. Employees in corporate culture may adopt "corporate jargon" and competitive attitudes, internalising organisational norms.

Gender performativity

Linguist: Butler

Refers to an argument that gender is not something inherent but something that is realised through what an individual does

Collective consciousness

Linguist: Burkheim

Refers to a shared set of norms, perspectives and/or values that is common to a community and that functions as a unifying force

Discursive formation

Linguist: Foucault

Refers to an organised set of beliefs that constitute a discourse, which can frame one's understanding of reality when viewed through its lens → power/knowledge, naturalisation.

E.g. Language & Medicine: Medical discourse defines what counts as "illness" or "normal" health, giving doctors authority over patients.

Language & Law: Legal discourse defines crimes, rights, and responsibilities, shaping social behaviour and access to justice.

Discourse

Linguist: Hajer

Refers to a shared framework of meaning that people use to make sense of the complexities of reality

Storyline

Linguist: Hajer. Refers to the creation of a narrative that helps people to interpret and make sense of the complexities of reality by simplifying it.

E.g. Language & Politics: Framing climate change as a "war against nature" simplifies environmental, economic, and social factors into a single, compelling narrative.

Discursive cement

Linguist: Hajer

Refers to the ability of storylines to normalise and legitimise a particular interpretation of reality by making it seem inherent and inevitable.

E.g. Language & Media: Describing technological innovation as "progress for all" normalises capitalist growth narratives.

Language & Environment: Presenting climate change mitigation as "scientifically necessary" makes specific policy measures appear unavoidable.

Articulation

Linguist: Hajer

Refers to the discursive construction of an association between 2 things in the public imagination, which leads to them being collocated.

E.g. Language & Politics: Linking immigration with crime in media discourse creates a perceived natural association between the two.

Encoding

Linguist: Hall

Refers to the process of embedding meaning in a text through the linguistic and paralinguistic choices and the semiotic choices that are made in it.

- Determines how a message can be interpreted, though the audience may decode it differently depending on context and perspective

E.g. Language & Media: A news article describing a protest as "violent riots" encodes a negative perception of the demonstrators.

Re-presentation

Linguist: Hall

Refers to the discursive construction of reality through media, which is typically done in a way that favours the interests of the societal elite

- Shapes public understanding by framing reality selectively, reinforcing dominant ideologies and power structures.

E.g. Language & Media: News coverage portraying labour strikes as "disruptive" while downplaying workers' grievances favours corporate interests.

Language & Politics: Media framing of protests against government policies as "lawlessness" marginalises dissenting voices.

Gender-neutralisation

Linguist: Pauwels

Refers to the downplaying of gender-specific language as a means of addressing gender inequality by making certain domains more gender inclusive

Gender specification

Linguist: Pauwels

Refers to the foregrounding of gender in gender-specific language as a means of addressing asymmetry to make women more visible in certain domains

Orientalism

Linguist: Said

Refers to the dichotomy between the East and the West, where the former is presented as an inferior Other that is irrational, feminine and weak, while the West is rational, masculine and powerful

Argumentation

Linguist: Wodak

Refers to the use of topoi (commonplaces or generalised reasoning patterns) to justify a claim.

E.g. Language & Politics: "We must increase security because safety is paramount" — topoi of safety justify stricter measures.

Language & Media: "This policy is effective because it has worked elsewhere" — topoi of experience/precedent support the claim.

Language & Business: "We need to innovate because competition is fierce" — topoi of threat/necessity rationalise corporate strategies.

Intensification

Linguist: Wodak

Refers to the use of linguistics to increase the illocutionary force of what is said

Mitigation

Linguist: Wodak

Refers to the use of linguistic means to soften the illocutionary force of what is said

Nomination

Linguist: Wodak

Refers to the process of naming or labelling a social actor in a specific context or event.

- It involves choosing terms or expressions that identify, characterise, or categorise people, often reflecting ideological perspectives.

- Shapes how individuals or groups are perceived, judged, or aligned within social and political discourse.

E.g. Language & Politics: Referring to protesters as "activists" vs. "rioters" frames them positively or negatively.

Language & Ethnicity: Using "migrant" vs. "illegal alien" frames the same group differently, influencing societal attitudes.

Perspectivism

Linguist: Wodak.

Refers to the positioning of a viewpoint as coming from a particular social actor.

E.g. Language & Politics: A politician saying "I believe the public wants stricter laws" positions the viewpoint as coming from the representative of the public.

Language & Media: A journalist reporting "Experts argue that climate change is urgent" attributes authority to the experts' perspective.

Predication

Linguist: Wodak

Refers to the attribution of a specific quality to a particular social actor or event.

E.g. Language & Politics: Calling a protester "violent" or "peaceful" assigns moral and behavioural qualities. Language & Ethnicity: Labelling a group as "law-abiding" vs. "criminals" constructs social judgment.

Elite discourse

Linguist: van Dijk

Refers to a set of social actors whose control over public institutions enables them to disproportionately shape public discourse.

E.g. Language & Politics: Policy statements from senior government officials framing immigration as a "threat" influence public debate.