Fallacy Definitions

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Appeal to Unqualified Authority

This fallacy happens when someone uses a person's perceived authority or fame as proof of a claim, even if that person isn't an expert in the relevant field. 

Ex. "Celebrity X says that this new weight loss supplement is the best, so it must be effective!"

Or

Ex. "My dentist told me that this new skincare product is the best for acne, so it must work."

Appeal to Ignorance

The appeal to ignorance fallacy occurs when someone argues that a claim is true or false simply because there's no evidence for or against it, rather than presenting actual evidence to support their claim. 

Ex. "No one has ever proven that extraterrestrial life doesn’t exist, so aliens must be real."

Or

Ex. "You can't prove that dark matter doesn’t exist, so it must be out there."

Hasty Generalization

A hasty generalization is a type of logical fallacy where someone jumps to a conclusion without sufficient evidence or a large enough sample size to support it. 

Ex. "I saw a few students wearing hoodies, so all students wear hoodies." 

Or

Ex. "I always fail at cooking, so I will never be a good cook." 

False Cause

The false cause fallacy is a type of informal logical fallacy where an argument assumes a causal relationship exists between two things or events, but either the relationship doesn't exist or there's insufficient evidence to support it. 

Ex. "Every time I wear my lucky shirt, my team wins. Therefore, wearing the shirt causes them to win". 

Or

Ex. "Every city with high crime also has a McDonald's, so McDonald's must cause crime"

Slippery Slope

A slippery slope argument suggests that if one thing is allowed or happens, then a series of increasingly severe, undesirable events will inevitably follow, even if there's no logical or empirical basis for this claim. 

Ex. "If we don't punish every minor infraction, then people will think they can get away with anything, and we'll have a complete breakdown of law and order." 

Or

Ex. "If we allow same-sex marriage, then the next thing we know, people will be marrying animals." 

Weak Analogy

The weak analogy fallacy, also known as a false or faulty analogy, occurs when an argument relies on an analogy that is not strong enough to support the conclusion, because the two things being compared are not sufficiently similar in relevant ways. 

Ex. “Guns are like hammers—they're both tools with metal parts that could be used to kill someone.”

Argument from force

The argument from force fallacy occurs when someone attempts to persuade an audience by using threats, intimidation, or the promise of violence to make them accept a particular viewpoint or action. 

Ex. "If you don't vote for me, I will make sure your business fails." 

Or

Ex. "If you don't believe in God, you will burn in hell forever." 

Argument Ad Misericordiam (Argument from pity) (Appeal to emotion)

occurs when someone attempts to persuade by evoking emotions rather than providing logical evidence or reasoning. Instead of focusing on facts, the argument manipulates feelings to sway an audience. 

Ex. “Officer, I know I was speeding, but please don't give me a ticket. I'm already struggling financially. Paying this ticket would be a massive burden, and it'll only make my life more difficult.”

Argument Ad Populum (Appeal to the people)

The ad populum fallacy, also known as the bandwagon fallacy or appeal to popularity, is a logical error that occurs when someone argues a claim is true simply because many people believe it. It incorrectly assumes that popular acceptance equates to validity or truth. 

Ex. "Everyone is getting the new smartphone, so you should too"

Or

Ex. "Many people buy extended warranties, therefore we should buy one for our new computer"

Ad Hominem (Against the person)

The ad hominem fallacy, or "argument against the person," discredits an argument by attacking the person making it, rather than addressing the argument's merits. It's a logical fallacy that focuses on personal attacks or irrelevant character traits instead of the issue at hand. 

Ex. “It’s hard to take your claims seriously when you spend all your time playing video games”

Ad Hominem (Abusive)

Directly insulting or attacking the person's character or personality. 

Ex. "She's just a gossip, so what she says about the company is probably not true." 

Or

Ex. “He’s a liar and a cheat so you can’t follow anything he says.”

Accident

The fallacy occurs when someone assumes a general rule applies to all instances, even when specific circumstances or "accidents" make the rule invalid. 

Ex. "All birds can fly, therefore penguins can fly"

Or

Ex. "Everyone should follow the golden rule, therefore even a masochist should follow the golden rule"

Straw man

The straw man fallacy is misrepresenting an opponent's argument, often by exaggerating, oversimplifying, or taking it out of context. 

Ex. “You want to cut defense spending? So you want to leave the country defenseless and vulnerable to attack?”

Red Herring

A red herring is a logical fallacy where someone shifts the focus of an argument to a different, often unrelated, topic to divert attention from the original issue. 

Ex. “We shouldn’t worry about climate change when there’s so much poverty in the world right now.”

Ignoratio Elenchi (Missing the point)

Ignoratio elenchi is a type of informal fallacy, specifically a relevance fallacy, where an argument, even if logically sound, misses the point or doesn't address the core issue being debated. 

Ex. Original Argument: "We should ban all cars to reduce pollution."

• Ignoratio Elenchi Response: "But cars are essential for transportation, and banning them would create chaos." (This response addresses the potential consequences of the premise (banning cars) rather than the conclusion (reducing pollution) that the original argument is trying to prove.) 

Begging the Question

Begging the question occurs when an argument assumes the very thing it is trying to prove, without providing independent evidence or reasoning. 

Ex. "God exists because the Bible says so, and the Bible is the word of God". 

Or.

Ex. "I should be able to get a free meal because I deserve it." 

Complex Question

A complex question fallacy is a type of logical fallacy where a question is phrased in a way that assumes the truth of a premise that hasn't been established or is disputed. 

Ex. “Have you stopped cheating on your exams?”

Or

Ex. “Where did you hide the stolen goods?”

False Dichotomy (Either/Or Fallacy)

A false dichotomy is a logical fallacy that simplifies a complex issue by presenting only two sides or options when multiple, viable alternatives are available. 

Ex. "If you don't get good grades, you'll end up working at a fast food restaurant"

Or

Ex. "You're either my friend or my enemy"

Suppressed Evidence

The fallacy of suppressed evidence involves selectively presenting information to support a claim, while ignoring or hiding evidence that could undermine that claim. 

Ex. A researcher might highlight only the positive results of a study while ignoring negative or contradictory findings. 

Or

Ex. “The Patriot missile is an excellent weapon. Tests show that in 98 percent of firings, the missile successfully left the launch pad.” Technically true. However, this omits information that after leaving the launch pad successfully, a majority of the missiles either blew up in mid-air or failed to hit the targets.

Equivocation

The equivocation fallacy, also known as the ambiguous term fallacy, happens when a term is used in one sense in part of an argument and then in a different sense in another part, creating a false or misleading conclusion. 

Ex. "I have the right to watch 'The Real World.' Therefore, it's right for me to watch the show. So, I think I'll watch this 'Real World' marathon tonight instead of studying for my exam." In this example, "right" is used in two different ways: legally (as in, "I have the right to...") and morally (as in, "it's right to..."). 

Or

Ex. "Humans are defined by their capacity for using higher reason. Infants cannot use their higher reason. Thus, infants are not humans." 

Amphiboly

Amphiboly is a logical fallacy that arises from ambiguous sentence structure or grammar, allowing a statement to be interpreted in multiple ways. 

Ex. "The governor says, 'Save soap and waste paper.' So soap is more valuable than paper" 

Or

Ex. "I saw the man with the telescope" (does the speaker have a telescope, or does the man have a telescope?) 

Fallacy of Composition

The fallacy of composition occurs when an argument incorrectly assumes that because a characteristic applies to the individual parts of a whole, it must also apply to the whole itself.

It's a type of informal fallacy, meaning it's not a formal error in the structure of the argument, but rather a flaw in the reasoning itself.

Ex. Atoms are colorless, therefore cats are colorless: Just because the individual atoms that make up a cat are colorless, it doesn't mean the cat itself is colorless

Or

Ex. If you stand up at a concert, you can see better. Therefore, if everyone stands up, everyone can see better: While standing up might improve visibility for one person, it can obstruct the view of others. 

Fallacy of Division

The fallacy of division is an informal fallacy that occurs when one reasons that something that is true for a whole must also be true of all or some of its parts. 

It's the opposite of the fallacy of composition, which assumes that what's true of the parts is true of the whole. 

Ex. "The American judicial system is a fair system. Therefore, the defendant got a fair trial and was not executed unfairly" . 

Or

Ex. "Harvard produces smart young people. Bob went to Harvard. Therefore, Bob is a smart young man." 

Hasty Generalization

A hasty generalization, also known as an over-generalization, occurs when someone makes a broad claim or draws a conclusion about an entire group or category based on a limited or biased sample. 

Ex. "I saw a few people wearing [brand] clothes, so everyone must be wearing [brand] clothes". 

Or

Ex. "My uncle smoked his whole life and lived to 90, so smoking isn't bad for you". 

Ad Hominem (Circumstantial)

Questioning someone's argument based on their circumstances or perceived biases. 

Ex. "Of course, he supports that policy; he's a politician." 

Or

Ex. "She's a CEO, so her opinion on minimum wage is probably biased." 

Ad Hominem (Tu Quoque) (You also)

Dismissing someone's argument by pointing out their hypocrisy or inconsistency. 

Ex. "You shouldn't tell me to study, you don't even study yourself." 

Or

Ex. "You can't tell me to stop smoking, you used to smoke too."