Psychology chapter 8 cognition and intelligence

Cognition

How people think; processes of thought

Intelligence

How well people think; ability of thought

Behaviorist theory of language

A theory that children learn language through imitation reinforcement and other established principles of conditioning.  Vocalizations are shaped with reinforcers until they're correct.  This theory was supported by Skinner

Nativist theories

The theory that proposes that humans are equipped with a language acquisition device, which is an innate mechanism or process that facilitates the learning of language . This theory states that humans learn language because they are biologically equipped to and that they learn the rules of language rather than certain vocalizations. 

Language acquisition device

And innate mechanism or process that facilitates the learning of language assumed to be made of brain structures or neural wiring

Interactionist theories of language

The theory that states that humans are biologically well equipped for learning language and that learning involves the acquisition of rules. However, they also believe that social exchanges with parents and others play critical role in molding language skills

Bilingualism

The acquisition of two languages that use different speech sounds vocabulary and grammatical rules. 

False

True or false bilingualism slows down language development

Lower

Bilinguals have slightly ___________ processing speed and verbal fluency .

Higher

Bilinguals have slightly ________ attention control and cognitive flexibility. 

Cognitive reserve

Bilingualism has been associated with this phenomenon which may help to ward off the symptoms of Alzheimer's disease. 

Linguistic relativity

The hypothesis that one's language determines the nature of one's thought . This was proposed by Benjamin Lee wharf. Current thinking seems to favor a weak version of this theory

Problem solving

Active efforts to discover what must be done to achieve a goal that is not readily attainable. Requires going beyond the given information to overcome obstacles and reach a goal

Problems of inducing structure

A problem where the person must discover the relations among the parts of a problem .  Includes series completion problems and analogy problems

Problems of arrangement

Problems in which a person must arrange the parts in a way that satisfies some criterion. The parts can usually be arranged in many ways. an example includes an anagram

Problems of transformation

Problems in which a person must carry out a sequence of transformations in order to reach a specific goal

Irrelevant information

A barrier to effective problem solving in which information not necessary to solve the problem is included and people focus on this information rather than the actual facts needed to solve the problem

Functional fixedness

A barrier to problem solving which involves the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use.

Mental set

A barrier to problem solving where people persist and using problem solving strategies that worked in the past even though they might not be effective for the current problem

Unnecessary constraints

A barrier to problem solving in which people assume that there is a constraint that is not actually imposed by the problem

Insight

When people suddenly discover the correct solution to a problem after struggling with it for a while.  It's like an aha moment

Special process view

The School of thought that insights arise from sudden restructuring a problems that occur at an unconscious level.

Business as usual view

The school of thought which asserts that insights arise from normal step by step analytical thinking that occurs at a conscious level

Integrated view

View the school of thought which asserts that both sudden unconscious restructuring and gradual conscious analytical thinking can contribute to the emergence of insights. 

Trial and error

A strategy of problem solving which involves trying possible solutions sequentially and discarding those that are in error until one works

Heuristic

Shortcuts and problem solving. A guiding principle or rule of thumb used in solving problems or making decisions. Includes forming sub goals, searching for analogies, and changing the representation of the problem.

Forming subgoals

A heuristic used to break down problems into smaller portions.  Solving one portion can help you move on to the next part. 

Searching for analogies

A heuristic which involves recognizing the similarity between two problems, therefore allowing the solution of one problem to be applied to the other

Changing the representation of a problem

A heuristic which involves changing how the problem is viewed so that a solution can be found

Incubation effect

When new solution surface for a previously unsolved problem after a period of not consciously thinking about the problem.  Taking a break

Holistic cognitive style

This cognitive style is common and Eastern Asian cultures and focuses on the context and relationships among elements.

Analytic cognitive style

Cognitive style that is common in Western cultures and involves focus on objects and their properties

Decision making

Evaluating alternatives and making choices among them

Theory of bounded rationality

The theory that asserts that people tend to use simple strategies and decision making that focus on only a few facets of available options and often result in irrational decisions that are less than optimal

Preferences

Personal opinions which affect s which choice is made

Choice overload

When people feel overwhelmed by decisions involving a large array of options

Risky decision making

Decision making which involves making choices under conditions of uncertainty. When this occurs, people tend to rely on probability estimates and other heuristics

Availability heuristic

The heuristic which involves basing the estimated probability of an event on the ease with which relevant instances come to mind

Representativeness heuristic

The heuristic which involves basing the estimated probability of an event on how similar it is to the typical prototype of the event. 

Base rates

The probability of an event occurring in a given population. This is usually ignored and people favor the representativeness heuristic and neglect this.

Conjunction fallacy

This occurs when people estimate that the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either event happening alone. It is generally attributed to the powerful influence of the representativeness heuristic

Fast and frugal heuristics

Simpler and more rapid decision-making strategies which are adaptive as they allow people to make fast decisions under demanding circumstances.  

Dual process theories

Theory is positing that people depend on two modes or systems of thinking when making decisions. One system consists of quick simple effortless, automatic judgments while the other consists of slower, more elaborate effortful and controlled judgments.

Binet Simon scale

A test that revolutionized the measurement of intellectual ability . It was inexpensive. Easy to administer objective and capable of predicting children's performance in school fairly well. It expresses a child's score in terms of mental level or mental age.

Mental age

A score which indicates that the child displays the mental ability, typical of a child of that chronological or actual age 

Intelligence quotient

A new scoring system in the Stanford Binet intelligence scale which is a child's mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by 100.

Wechsler adult intelligence scale

A high quality IQ test designed specifically for adults by David wechsler

Normal distribution and standard deviation

Modern intelligence testing have scores that are based on this statistical index of variability. 

Normal distribution

Symmetrical bell-shaped curve that represents the pattern in which many characteristics are dispersed in the population

Deviation IQ scores

IQ scores that locate respondents precisely within the normal distribution. The normal distribution of IQ scores has a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15.

Percentile score

A score which indicates the percentage of people who score at or below the score one has obtained 

Reliability

The measurement consistency of a test. IQ tests are exceptionally reliable

Correlation coefficient

A numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables

Validity

The ability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure.

Verbal intelligence

IQ test primarily measure this type of intelligence as well as reasoning and school intelligence.

Verbal intelligence, practical intelligence and social intelligence 

Three types of intelligence.  IQ tests only measure the 1st. 

True

True or false : intelligence tests can predict vocational success and job performance although the strength of the relationship tends to be modest.

Western

IQ testing is mainly used in _______ cultures

Twin studies

This type of evidence has helps to prove the hereditary influence of intelligence as identical twins tend to have a stronger correlation of intelligence than fraternal twins, even when reared separately. 

Heritability ratio

And estimate of the proportion of a trait variability in a population that is determined by variations and genetic inheritance. The consensus estimates of the experts tend to hover around 50% for intelligence.

Heritability estimates

These have limitations as they are group statistics. They can fluctuate over the lifespan and it can vary between groups.  

Adoption studies

This serves us evidence for both the hereditary and environmental influences on intelligence as biological parents and their children have correlations and intelligence. However, siblings reared together are more similar in IQ than siblings reared apart.

Environmental deprivation

Children in impoverished environments and substandard circumstances show a decline in IQ scores

Cumulative deprivation hypothesis

Children who are raised in substandard circumstances should experience a gradual decrease in IQ as they grow older.  

Enriched environment

An environment with access to learning materials and circumstances that are more conductive to learning. Children and these environments tend to benefit and have increased IQ scores

The Flynn effect

The trend in which IQ scores have been increasing across generations and decades in a variety of measures and samples. This points to the environmental effect on intelligence. Reasons this could occur. Include more access to schooling, improved health, more exposure to educational materials and better educated parents.

Reaction range

Genetically determined limits on IQ.  Environmental factors can affect where in this range individuals fall. However, heredity determines the limits of the range.  

Reaction range model

The theory that heredity sets certain limits on intelligence and environmental factors determine where individuals fall within these limits .

False minority groups tend to score lower

True or false:There is a little difference in racial, ethnic or cultural groups in intelligence scoring

Socioeconomic disadvantage

The current belief for why why minority groups tend to score lower on intelligence tests is because they are overrepresentated in low socioeconomic status groups