African American History and Cultural Movements Overview

What movements emerged in the early to mid-20th century that affirmed African heritage among Afro-descendants?

The Negritude and Negrismo movements.

What was the primary influence on the Negritude and Negrismo movements?

The New Negro movement in the U.S.

What does Negritude mean and when did it occur?

Negritude means 'Blackness' in French and was a movement from the 1930s to 1950s.

What was the main goal of the Negritude movement?

To protest colonialism and the assimilation of Black people into European culture.

Where did Negrismo emerge and what did it celebrate?

Negrismo emerged in the Spanish-speaking Caribbean and celebrated African contributions in music, folklore, literature, and art.

How did African Americans relate to the Negritude and Negrismo movements?

They saw connections between these movements and their own critiques of global capitalism and racism.

Who was Jessie Redmon Fauset and what did she advocate for?

She was an editor of The Crisis and condemned racism and colonialism as interrelated means of dehumanizing people of African descent.

What time period does the Black Freedom Movement encompass?

From the mid-1940s to the 1970s.

What were the two significant movements within the Black Freedom Movement?

The Civil Rights movement and the Black Power movement.

What was the significance of Ghana's independence in 1957?

It inspired visits from African-American activists and highlighted diasporic solidarity.

What did African American activists do in the 1950s and 1960s regarding Africa?

They visited Africa to express solidarity and support for its decolonization.

Who were some notable African American figures that visited Ghana after its independence?

Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X, Maya Angelou, Pauli Murray, and W.E.B. Du Bois.

What was Joe Louis's role in promoting Cuba in 1960?

He traveled with an African American delegation to promote Cuba as a tourist destination for African Americans.

How did diasporic solidarity impact the Black Freedom Movement?

It bolstered the movement's global reach and connected struggles against anti-Black racism.

What was the 'Year of Africa' and what happened during this time?

In 1960, 17 African nations declared their independence from European colonialism.

What ongoing impact does diasporic solidarity have?

It continues to bring international attention to Africa's decolonization and related movements.

What shared goals did the Negritude and Negrismo movements have?

They emphasized cultural pride and the political liberation of Black people.

How did the Black Freedom Movement affect racial pride?

It heightened Black consciousness and racial pride in the U.S. and abroad.

What was a common critique shared by proponents of Negritude and Negrismo?

They critiqued European colonialism in the Caribbean.

What role did the Civil Rights Movement play in the Black Freedom Movement?

It annulled Jim Crow laws and practices.

What was the relationship between Negritude, Negrismo, and the New Negro Movement?

Negritude and Negrismo were influenced by the New Negro Movement and shared similar goals.

What was the cultural significance of the Negritude movement?

It was a literary and cultural movement that celebrated Black identity and heritage.

What was the impact of diasporic solidarity on the global perception of the Black Freedom Movement?

It helped to raise awareness and support for anti-colonial struggles in Africa.

What does Pan-Africanism and Diasporic Solidarity acknowledge?

Shared struggles against anti-Black racism and oppression.

How did Diasporic Solidarity develop during the decolonization period?

It grew between Black Freedom leaders and African countries undergoing decolonization.

What was the status of the United States Armed Forces at the beginning of WWII?

The Armed Forces remained segregated.

How many African Americans registered for the draft or enlisted during WWII?

Over two million African Americans.

Who were the Tuskegee Airmen?

The first African American pilots in the United States military, serving in the U.S. Army Air Corps.

What was the purpose of the Double Victory Campaign?

To achieve victory against fascism abroad and victory against Jim Crow segregation at home.

Who inspired the Double Victory Campaign and how?

James G. Thompson inspired it with a letter to the Pittsburgh Courier urging African Americans to fight for both victories.

What was the Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944 also known as?

The G.I. Bill of 1944.

What benefits did the G.I. Bill provide to veterans?

Funds for college tuition, low-cost home mortgages, and low-interest business startup loans.

What issue arose with the distribution of G.I. Bill benefits?

Funds were administered locally and subject to Jim Crow discrimination, leading to disproportionate benefits for white veterans.

What were the conditions faced by African Americans through the mid-20th century?

Continued racial discrimination, violence, and segregation in education, housing, transportation, and voting.

What did the Civil Rights movement aim to achieve?

To eradicate segregation and ensure federal protection of rights guaranteed by the Reconstruction Amendments and the Civil Rights Act of 1875.

What was the significance of the Brown v. Board of Education decision in 1954?

It ruled racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional, violating the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.

What prior ruling did Brown v. Board of Education overturn?

The 'separate but equal' doctrine established in Plessy v. Ferguson.

What evidence did the Supreme Court cite in the Brown decision?

The 'doll test' conducted by psychologists Mamie and Kenneth Clark, demonstrating the impact of segregation on children's self-esteem.

What continued despite the ruling of Brown v. Board of Education?

De facto segregation in public schools persisted.

How did some states respond to the Brown ruling?

Some cut funding for integrated schools while supporting predominantly white schools.

What was the impact of white flight on African American communities during the mid-20th century?

White families fled to suburbs and private schools, shifting their investment away from schools and neighborhoods accessible to African Americans.

What was the significance of the Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education?

It made segregation in schools unconstitutional and overturned Plessy v. Ferguson.

Who were the 'Little Rock Nine'?

A group of nine African American students who attempted to integrate Little Rock High School in Arkansas in 1957.

What research influenced the Supreme Court's decision in Brown v. Board of Education?

The findings from the 'doll test' conducted by Mamie and Kenneth Clark.

What forms of resistance to desegregation were observed after Brown v. Board?

Resistance included white flight, violence, cutting funds, and using police to prevent desegregation.

What was the outcome of Alexander v. Holmes?

It accelerated the pace of desegregation in schools.

What restrictions did African Americans face regarding home ownership in the 20th century?

They faced restrictions that limited their ability to pass on wealth to their descendants.

How did the Federal Housing Administration contribute to housing segregation?

Its Underwriting Manual (1938) codified housing segregation, making it illegal for African Americans to live in many communities.

What was redlining?

A discriminatory practice where mortgage lenders withheld loans from African Americans and other people of color based on perceived financial risks.

What was the impact of housing discrimination on African American communities?

It intensified existing disparities, limiting access to public transportation, clean water, healthcare, and recreational spaces.

How did African Americans respond to poor infrastructure in predominantly Black areas?

They operated jitneys and started their own bus companies to provide transportation services.

What were the 'Big Four' civil rights organizations?

The NAACP, SCLC, CORE, and SNCC, which united African Americans to fight racial discrimination.

What methods did civil rights organizations use to promote their cause?

They employed nonviolent, direct, and racially inclusive protests and grassroots efforts.

What was the Fair Housing Act and when was it passed?

It was passed in 1968 to combat housing discrimination, following efforts by the NAACP.

What were some challenges faced by African Americans who integrated into white neighborhoods?

They often became targets of mob violence.

What is de facto segregation and how has it changed over time?

De facto segregation refers to racial separation that occurs without legal enforcement; it has been on the rise despite legal advances.

What role did local branches of civil rights organizations play in the movement?

They launched a national movement based on shared methods of protest and grassroots efforts.

What was the significance of the 'doll test' in the context of racial integration?

It demonstrated the psychological effects of segregation on children, influencing the Supreme Court's decision.

What were the consequences of housing discrimination for African American families?

It prevented them from accumulating wealth and passing it on to future generations.

What was the response of the NAACP to housing discrimination?

They fought against it through legal challenges and advocacy for the Fair Housing Act.

What were some of the disparities exacerbated by housing discrimination?

Limited access to healthcare, clean air and water, and recreational spaces.

How did the civil rights movement address racial inequality?

By uniting diverse African American experiences and advocating for equality through organized protests and legal challenges.

What were some nonviolent forms of civil disobedience used during the Civil Rights Movement?

Marches, sit-ins, litigation, economic boycotts, and the use of mass media.

What was the Birmingham Children's Crusade and why were children included?

Organized in Alabama in 1963, it included children to avoid penalties like loss of homes or jobs. The violent police response against children was televised, shocking many Americans.

Who organized the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom?

A. Philip Randolph, Bayard Rustin, and an alliance of Black civil rights organizations and leaders from religious and labor groups.

What were the main issues highlighted during the March on Washington in 1963?

Economic inequality, unemployment, and racial discrimination.

What significant speech did Martin Luther King Jr. deliver during the March on Washington?

The 'I Have a Dream' speech.

What was the purpose of the Mississippi Freedom Summer project in 1964?

To highlight racial violence faced by African Americans asserting their right to vote and to establish Freedom Schools for civic activism.

What tragic event galvanized the Civil Rights Movement during the Mississippi Freedom Summer?

The killing of three young activists: one African American and two Jewish.

What landmark legislation resulted from the Civil Rights Movement in 1964?

The Civil Rights Act of 1964, which ended segregation and prohibited discrimination based on race, color, and religion.

What did the Voting Rights Act of 1965 accomplish?

It outlawed discriminatory barriers in voting.

What were the 'Big Four' Civil Rights Organizations?

NAACP, SCLC, SNCC, and CORE.

What strategies did civil rights organizations use to promote their cause?

A combination of nonviolent, direct, and racially inclusive protests and grassroots efforts.

What were some successes of the Civil Rights Movement?

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

Who was Ella Baker and what was her contribution to the Civil Rights Movement?

Known as the 'mother of the Civil Rights movement,' she focused on grassroots organizing and inclusive leadership.

What did Ella Baker advocate for during her speech at SNCC's founding in 1960?

She argued that peaceful sit-ins were about the full inclusion of African Americans in every aspect of American life.

Who was Dorothy Height and what role did she play in the Civil Rights Movement?

She led the National Council of Negro Women for 40 years and worked on major civil rights projects.

What was the Coordinating Council of Community Organizations (CCCO)?

Established in the mid-1960s to protest school segregation in Chicago and later focused on employment and housing discrimination.

What was the significance of the New York City School Boycott in 1964?

Nearly half of New York City's student body (464,000 students) boycotted school to protest racial segregation.

What was the impact of televised violence during the Birmingham Children's Crusade?

It shocked many Americans and people around the world, increasing support for the Civil Rights Movement.

How did the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party emerge?

It was formed in response to the racial violence and activism during the Mississippi Freedom Summer.

What was a key focus of Black women leaders like Ella Baker and Fannie Lou Hamer in the Civil Rights Movement?

Addressing both racial and gender discrimination.

What was the role of Freedom Schools established during the Mississippi Freedom Summer?

To prepare African Americans for civic activism and voter registration.

What was the significance of the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom?

It was a pivotal event that brought national attention to civil rights issues and featured Martin Luther King Jr.'s iconic speech.

What did the Civil Rights Act of 1964 achieve in terms of segregation?

It ended segregation in public places and banned employment discrimination.

What was the significance of the New York City school boycott of 1964?

It was the largest single-day civil rights protest in U.S. history.

Who were some key Black women leaders in the Black Freedom Movement?

Ella Baker, Fannie Lou Hamer, and Dorothy Height.

What role did grassroots organizations play in the Black Freedom Movement?

They were just as impactful as leader-oriented organizations in achieving progress.

How did Black artists contribute to the Black Freedom Movement?

They used various forms of expression to bring attention to racial inequality and resistance.

Who was Nicolas Gullien and what was his contribution to the Black Freedom Movement?

He was a Negrismo poet who examined anti-Black racism and connected struggles in the U.S. and Latin America.

What type of music did Charles Mingus create, and what was its significance?

He composed protest songs that drew attention to white supremacist responses to racial integration.

What role did faith and music play in the Civil Rights Movement?

They were important for inspiration and community mobilization, with freedom songs emerging from various musical traditions.

What was the purpose of freedom songs during the Civil Rights Movement?

They inspired activists, unified spirits, and communicated hopes for equality.

What is the significance of the song 'We Shall Overcome'?

It was described by Martin Luther King Jr. as the anthem of the Civil Rights Movement.

What was the Nation of Islam (NOI) and when was it founded?

Founded in Detroit in 1930, it blended Islamic beliefs with Black Nationalist ideology.

Who was Elijah Muhammad and what was his influence on the NOI?

He led the NOI from 1934 and encouraged followers to adopt Muslim surnames, often using 'X'.

What shift occurred in the mid-1960s regarding the Civil Rights Movement?

Some African Americans embraced Black Power, seeking self-determination and cultural pride.

What did the Black Power movement emphasize?

It promoted self-determination, defended violence as a strategy, and emphasized cultural pride.

What was the role of the Black Church in the Civil Rights Movement?

It provided a space for organizing and the evolution of freedom songs.

How did Black artists publicize their contributions to the freedom movement?

They reached a wider global audience through their art.