Cog psych exam 2

percent savings

how much time you save when relearning material

Ebbinghaus

-created lists of nonsense syllables
-measured number of repetitions to learn the list
-waited
-measured number of repetitions to relearn
-calculated percent savings

Ebbinghaus curve

continue to lose memory over time if you don't keep relearning it

Bahrick

-participants took Spanish 1-50 years ago but not since
-accounted for initial learning
-tested them on recall and recognition and reading comprehension
-after about 3 years on, they remembered about the same amount

no

Are Bahrick and Ebbinghaus' findings similar?

important in memory retrieval

-rehearsals not important
-how we process memory retrieval

deep and shallow

two ways of processing information

how deeply material is encoded

what memory depends on

deep

-leads to better memory
-more meaningful

shallow

-leads to worse memory
-superficial

circular and incorrect prediction

problems with levels of processing theory

Morris et al.

-deeper processing wasn't better because processing at test required shallow processing
-would've been better to learn with shallow processing

encoding specificity

the recollection of an event or a certain aspect of it depends on the interaction between the properties of the encoded event and the properties of the retrieval information

context-dependent memory

-memory is better when the study environment and test environment are the same
-learning it underwater and being tested underwater better results than being tested on land

state-dependent memory

-memory is better when the biological state at encoding is the same as biological state at test
-remember information you learned better drunk when drunk than when you are sober

mood-dependent memory

-memory is better when the mood at encoding is the same as the mood at test
-remember information you learned when angry better when you are angry

mood-congruent memory

- the mood you are in during recall affects the type of information you remember
-if you are happy you tend to remember happy things

memory like puzzle

you bits of information together
-from memory itself
-general knowledge
-inferences

confabulation

supplying additional information and details that were not part of original story unintentionally

primary source

event itself

secondary source

-general knowledge
-inferences
-alternate events

schema

an organized mental structure that reflects an individual's knowledge, experience, and expectations about some aspect of the world

schema influences

-how information is encoded
-how information is retrieved

Hasher & Griffen

same story is read but groups receive a different title for it, based on the title people make common errors

flashbulb memories

memories of highly surprising events as if frozen by a photograph

remembered from flashbulb memories

-where they were
-what they were doing
-who they were with
-what they were thinking

difficult to study

flashbulb memories:
-events are unpredictable
-difficult to assess the impact/accuracy

Weaver diary study

-asked students to remember next encounter with roommate and answer questionnaire
-that night Bush announced bombing of Iraq
-similar questionnaire given 3 and 12 months later
-rapid forgetting initially
-little forgetting from 3 to12 months
-much more confident for Iraq memory than regular

confidence

main difference between flashbulb and regular memory

attribution error

remember most of information correctly but attribute to wrong source

inferences

memory of event can be influenced based on inferences made at time of the event

Loftus and Palmer

- how fast were cars going when they smashed or contacted with each other
-was there broken glass?
- smashed 33% yes
-contacted 10% yes

Red Datsun study

-either misled or not by saying opposite or same as the sign they saw (yield or stop)
-not misled ~80% correct
-misled ~20% correct

incentive and awareness

does not make a difference in red datsun study

DRM paradigm

-gave list of related words
-at test given item related to words on list but was never presented
-most remembered the lure and were highly confident it was there

Hyman and Billings

-obtain childhood memories
-ask about 5 memories (4 had occurred 1 had not)
-when asked 2 days later more people remembered the false event actually happening

Wade et al

- 50% of participants recalled made-up event from photoshopped picture either clearly or partially

Berkowitz

- made up article about Pluto licking kids at Disneyland
-people develop false memories of being licked by Pluto

episodic memory

memories for specific events in which you were somehow involved

semantic memory

general knowledge

amnesiacs and blood flow patterns

evidence for separate memory systems

cognitive economy

-avoid storing redundant information
-store information at the highest level possible

2 types of links

"is a"
property

3 assumptions

-retrieving a property and traversing the hierarchy take time
-times are additive
-times are level independent

how model is tested

sentence verification task
-answer as quickly as possible "true or false"
-"a rose is a flower"
-"a dog has a tail"

problems with hierarchal model

predicts "a dog is a mammal" should be faster than "a dog is an animal" but it isn't

spreading activation

-related concepts are connected to each other
-when processing a concept, activated
-activation spreads to related concepts
-if process related concept, already active, saves time

spreading activation assumptions

-activation spreads on all paths
-activation spreads in parallel
-activation decreases over time
-complex decision rules on negative trials

priming

faster responding to a test item (target) when the preceding item (prime) is related compared to when the preceding item is unrelated

stimulus onset asynchrony

the time difference between the onset of two events
-priming will be found with short SOA

automatic process

-affects priming
-preexisting relationship

strategic process

-affects priming
-not preexisting relationship

mediated priming

priming when there is no obvious pre-existing semantic relationship
- lion primes stripes
-lion > tiger > stripes

connectionist model

-items are not stored in memory
-information is stored as a pattern of neutral activity

declarative

knowledge you can verbalize

procedural

knowledge you cannot verbalize (riding a bike)

concept

a mental representation of some object, event, or pattern that has stored in it much of the knowledge typically thought relevant to that object, event, or pattern

category

a class of similar things that share one of two things: either an essential core or some similarity in perceptual, biological, or functional properties

classical view

- a feature that is required for category membership
-shared by all instances of a category

prototype view

-each member has a number of features
-each member shares different features with different members
-few (if any) features are shared by all members

exemplar

an example of a member of a category

knowledge-based view

-the relationship between a concept and examples of the concept is analogous to the relationship
-don't compare features or similarity

imagery

a process by which an internal representation of an object is generated

types of imagery

visual
auditory
olfactory - smell
cutaneous - touch
taste

eidetic imagery

visual imagery of almost photographic accuracy

Haber and Haber

-showed 150 children images
- showed picture for 30 sec
-asked questions about images
-8% demonstrated eidetic imagery
-never used past tense when answering
-eyes moved as if looking at the picture

mnemonics

tricks or techniques used to improve memory

method of loci

- imagine places/locations/landmarks that have an order to them
-mentally picture the items you need to remember at each landmark

interacting images

-need to remember two words
-imagine the two things interacting together

pegword method

-memorize a rhyme
-picture the word you need to remember interacting with the words from the rhyme

mediators

add extra words or sentences to mediate or go between the material
-HOMES to remember great lakes

analog

mimics or simulates or preserves the structure of the referent in a more or less direct manner

proposition

smallest unit of meaning about which one can assert truth

Brooks

say response requires propositional representation
point response requires analog representation

Kosslyn 1976

-features that are either highly associated or marginally associated with a particular object
-features that are either small or large in relation to the main object
-propositional- faster for highly associated item
-analog- faster for larger item

Kosslyn 1978

-had to memorize map
-imagine a dot, then move the dot to a different location
-propositional: RT for various distances should be equivalent
-analog: RT should be longer for larger distances

implicit encoding

-information is not stored intentionally
-you can construct visual image and find the information you were looking for
-"how many cabinets are in your house"

perceptual equivalence

whatever mental processes you use to perceive an object--you use those same kinds of mental processes to imagine an object

spatial equivalence

the spatial arrangement of the elements of a mental image corresponds to the way objects or their parts are arranged on actual physical surfaces or in an actual physical space

transformational equivalence

imagined transformations and physical transformations exhibit corresponding dynamic characteristics and are governed by the same laws of motion

structural equivalence

the structure of mental images corresponds to that of actual perceived objects in the sense that the structure is coherent, well organized, and can be reorganized, and reinterpreted

tacit knowledge

the information people possess that reflects their beliefs about how things should work but that might not be verbalized

demand characteristics

the instructions, the tasks themselves, or something else about the situation cues the person on how to behave

experimenter bias

the expectation of the experimenter leads the experimenter to give subtle clues to participants, influencing how they respond in a particular situation

mental rotation

the larger the degree of rotation the longer response time to determine if the shape is the same or different

imagery neglect

describe only right side of image

regular

-characteristic of language
-governed by a system of rules (grammar)

productive

-characteristic of language
-an infinite number of things can be expressed

aribitrary

there does not need to be a relationship between an utterance and the entity it refers to

english

-atypical language
-borrows heavily from other languages
-lots of exceptions

phoneme

smallest unit of sound in a language

morpheme

smallest unit that carries meaning

grammar

set of rules that allow the communicator to combine arbitrary symbols to convey meaning

phonology

rules for combining sounds

syntax

rules for combining words

semantics

rules used to communicate meaning

surface structure

actual words

deep structure

meaning

transformation

rules to transform between actual words and meaning

ambiguity

language is full of.....