Studied by 29 people
Guarantee minimum on the 3 on MCQ if you know all of these :)
Democratic Centralism
The interests of the people are discovered through discussion and then are decided by a central leadership.
Ex: Soviet Union
Direct Democracy
The people decide on policies without any intermediary or representative. Citizens are directly responsible for making policy decisions.
Ex: Propositions (Vote no on prop 1!)
Representative Democracy
People vote for representatives who then enact policy initiatives.
Ex: The President and their party system
Pluralist Theory/Democracy
A model of democracy in which no one group dominates politics and organized groups compete with each other to influence policy.
Ex: India
3 Main Types of Representative Democracies
Participatory Democracy, Elite Democracy, and Pluralist Democracy.
Participatory Democracy
Citizens have the power to make policy decisions. Participatory democracy emphasizes the broad participation of people in politics. Are NOT directly responsible in policy decisions.
Elite Democracy
Limited and qualified people make decisions on the behalf of the people.
Articles of Confederation
The first constitution of the United States, written during the American Revolution and adopted in 1777. It established a weak central government with limited powers and a loose confederation of independent states. Failed because of inability to tax, raise army, and regulate commerce. Turning point was Shays’s Rebellion in which it highlighted its weakness and then was replaced by the now constitution.
Constitutional Convention
The convention in Philadelphia, May 25 to September 17, 1787, that debated and agreed upon the Constitution of the United States.
“The Great Compromise”
Created the senate and house of representatives. Considered slaves as 3/5 for the counting of population.
The Federalist Papers
A collection of essays written by John Jay, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton in 1788 regarding the ratification of the new constitution.
Federalist 10
Federalism means better representation.
A strong, united republic would be more effective than the individual states at controlling “factions”. A large republic will help control factions because when more representatives are elected, there will be a greater number of opinions. Therefore, it is far less likely that there will be one majority oppressing the rest of the people.
Brutus I
No to Federalism.
An Antifederalist series of essays designed to encourage New Yorkers to reject the proposed Constitution. The immense power of the federal government requires the people to sacrifice their liberties. A bill of rights was necessary to protect the people from the government. Congress possesses far too much power: taxation, standing army, taxes, Elastic Clause. A free republic cannot exist in such a large territory as the United States. Judicial authority will broaden federal government’s power (thus, tyranny)
Federalist 39
Balance of state and national governments.
While the national government holds authority, the states retain their own distinct sphere of governance. Moreover, Madison points out that the structure of the federal government itself is designed to reflect a balance between national and state interests.
Federalist 51
Proposes the checks and balances of power.
Proposes a government broken into three branches: Executive, Legislative, and Judicial. Each branch should be self-sufficient, but each should have some kind of power over the other in order for them to keep each other from taking over the government. The Legislative branch needs to be split further into the House of Representatives and the Senate because it's the most powerful branch, and members of the Judicial branch need to be chosen by the President with the Senate's approval because they want qualified candidates for a position that lasts for life. This style of government also helps keep down the power of factions, a recurring theme from Federalist 10.
Federalist 70
Unity is key.
Argues that unity in the executive branch is a main ingredient for both energy and safety. Energy arises from the proceedings of a single person, characterized by, "decision, activity, secrecy, and dispatch," while safety arises from the unitary executive's unconcealed accountability to the people. Justifies executive strength by claiming that the slow-moving Congress, a body designed for deliberation, will be best-balanced by a quick and decisive executive. Also maintains that governmental balance can only be achieved if each branch of government (including the executive branch) has enough autonomous power such that tyranny of one branch over the others cannot occur. Makes the case for duration, meaning a presidential term long enough to promote stability in the government. Support can be defined as a presidential salary, which insulates government officials from corruption by attracting capable, honest men to office. Support can be defined as a presidential salary, which insulates government officials from corruption by attracting capable, honest men to office.
Federalist 78
Strengthen the Judiciary.
As “the weakest of the three departments of power,” the Judiciary needs strengthening. Without an independent judiciary, any rights reserved to the people by the Constitution “would amount to nothing,” since the legislature cannot be relied upon to police itself. Lifetime appointments, guaranteed “during good behavior” to insure that judges can resist encroachments from the legislature (to which presumably they would be vulnerable by means of bribes or threats)
Checks and Balances
There are balances in power and review of each other from gaining too much power and exploiting them.
The Bill of Rights
The guaranteed rights of people under the constitution, meant to protect people from the government.
Charles Beard’s Theory
The constitution was made with the intent to protect rich people. The Constitution's founding fathers were rich.
Amending the Constitution
Proposal by congress with 2/3 vote from them. Then will be 3/4 vote by the states.
Federal System
A division of power between two entities.
Ex: Mexico
Unitary System
A central government which is supreme.
Ex: China
Confederal System
A system of government where nations group or join, making it their central government.
Ex: Article of Confederation era U.S.
Pros and Cons of Federalism
While federalism offers benefits such as flexibility and experimentation, it also poses challenges related to coordination, inequality, and potential conflicts between levels of government.
Federalism and Civil Rights
The concept of federalism requires respect for the distinct legal authorities and diverse cultures of the separate states, but the concept of civil rights requires adherence to uniform rules emanating either directly from the national Constitution or indirectly from various congressional enactments. The two concepts are thus bound in a structural tension.
Fiscal Federalism
The expenditure of federal funds on programs run in part through state and local governments. If a state accepts a federal grant-in-aid, it must. comply with federal restrictions on its use.
Ex: If you accept this bill, I’ll 2x your contract payment (National government says to a State).
Funded Mandate
When the federal government give the states money to help them do whatever they want them to do, that's a funded mandate.
Unfunded Mandate
A statute or regulation that requires a state or local government to perform certain actions, yet provides no money for fulfilling the requirements.
Devolution
The transfer of certain powers from one entity to another. It's an effort to reduce federal government powers by transferring some responsibilities to the state governments.
“Elitism” and Why We Hate Congress
Perceptions of elitism in Congress contribute to public frustration and disillusionment with the political establishment, fueling calls for reform and efforts to increase transparency, accountability, and equity in the democratic process. Addressing issues related to campaign finance, lobbying regulations, and representation can help mitigate the influence of elites and restore public confidence in the integrity and responsiveness of government institutions.
Advantages of Incumbency
Incumbent firms are businesses already established in each market or industry. They may have the advantages of having built up a loyal base of customers and also achieved internal economies of scale so that their average costs are lower than those of a rival / challenger supplier or brand. They have some money from the government and their own printer for ads.
Informal Norms of Congress
Seniority is a key factor in determining committee assignments and leadership positions, while reciprocity fosters cooperation among members. Party loyalty dictates adherence to party agendas, and committee work relies on cooperation and collegiality. Courtesy and respect are valued in interactions, and informal leaders wield influence alongside formal leadership. Additionally, an understanding of the demanding nature of the job influences expectations regarding work-life balance. Together, these informal norms guide congressional conduct, facilitate cooperation, and contribute to the effective functioning of the legislative branch.
Structure of Congress
The Congress of the United States, comprising the Senate and the House of Representatives, serves as the legislative branch of the federal government. The Senate consists of 100 members, two from each state, serving six-year terms, while the House of Representatives has 435 members apportioned among the states based on population, serving two-year terms. Both chambers share responsibilities in lawmaking, including proposing, debating, and passing legislation. The Speaker of the House, elected by House members, and the Vice President, who serves as President of the Senate, provide leadership in their respective chambers. Congress operates primarily through its committee system, where members review and amend proposed legislation before it reaches the floor for a vote.
Congressional Leadership Offices
In the House, the Speaker of the House, typically a member of the majority party, holds the highest-ranking position and is responsible for presiding over sessions, setting the legislative agenda, and representing the chamber to the public. Other key leadership positions in the House include the Majority Leader, who helps coordinate legislative priorities and manages floor proceedings, and the Minority Leader, who leads the minority party and serves as its chief spokesperson. Similarly, in the Senate, the Vice President of the United States serves as President of the Senate, although they only vote in the case of ties. The Senate also has Majority and Minority Leaders, who play analogous roles to their counterparts in the House. Additionally, both chambers have Whips, responsible for rallying party members and ensuring attendance for key votes.
Standing Committees
Permanent body with specified legislature responsibilities. Either kill or pass the bills. Each has sub committees.
Ex: Agriculture Committee
Select Committee
Temporary and meant for limited issues (usually important).
Joint Committee
Both Democrats and Republicans work together to find interests, rather than pass legislation.
Conference Committee
Is formed to achieve an agreement between both the house and the senate on the exact wording of the bill
House Rules Committee
Determines the terms on which legislation will reach the floor, sets the time limit of the debate time for a bill, and decides how a bill may be amended
House Ways and Means Committee
Drafts taxation legislation.
Senate Foreign Relations Committee
Reviews and considers all diplomatic nominations and international treaties and legislation relating to US foreign policy and the funding of foreign aid programs as well as arms sales.
Senate Judiciary Committee
Reviews pending legislation and judicial nominees.
Iron Triangles
See image.
The Lawmaking Process
A representative sponsors a bill. The bill is then assigned to a committee for study. If released by the committee, the bill is put on a calendar to be voted on, debated or amended. If the bill passes by simple majority (218 of 435), the bill moves to the Senate.
Term Limits
House of Representative: 2 years
Senator: 6 years
President: 4 years
Supreme Court Justice: indefinitely (retire or death)
Presidential/Parliamentary Executives
Presidential systems emphasizes separation of powers and checks and balances and parliamentary systems prioritizing accountability and flexibility through a closer relationship between the executive and legislative branches.
Divided and Unified Government
Will sway how hard it is to pass legislation.
Powers of President
Is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, directing military operations, and determining defense policy. As the head of the executive branch, the President is tasked with enforcing federal laws, overseeing government agencies, and appointing key officials. Diplomatically, the President represents the nation in foreign relations, negotiates treaties, and conducts diplomacy to advance national interests. In the legislative arena, while Congress holds primary authority, the President can propose legislation, veto bills, and influence the legislative agenda. Additionally, the President possesses appointment powers, granting pardons, issuing executive orders, and in times of crisis, may exercise emergency powers to address national emergencies.
Personal Presidency
Presidents promise greater and greater expectations which often leads to failure on delivering on the promises they make during campaigns.
Public Presidency
The president often makes public appearances to attract attention and with/keep public support
Veto
Denial of a piece of legislation (by the president) unless it is overruled by another congressional vote.
Pocket Veto
President’s failure to sign the legislation by the expiration date, leading it to “die”.
Presidential Transition
The incoming President's transition team coordinates with federal agencies, reviews policy priorities, and prepares to assume leadership of the executive branch. Cooperation between the incoming and outgoing administrations is crucial for facilitating a smooth transfer of power and ensuring continuity of government operations.
The Impeachment Process
The House of Representatives approves the articles, the President or other impeached official is formally impeached. The process then moves to the Senate, where a trial is held, presided over by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, with Senators serving as jurors. A two-thirds majority vote in the Senate is required to convict and remove the impeached official from office.
Bureacracy
Organizations meant to enforce, regulate and gather information.
The 5 Bureaucratic Pathologies.
Red Tape, Conflict, Duplication, Imperialism, and Waste.
Red Tape
Overly complex procedures that slows and sucks up resources.
Conflict
Agencies work at cross-purposes.
Duplication
Different agencies doing the same tasks.
Imperialism
Tendency of agencies to grow, irrespective of programs’ benefits and costs.
Waste
Spending more than is necessary to buy some product or service.
4 Types of Federal Bureaucracy
Cabinet Departments, Regulatory Agencies, Government Corporations, and
Independent executive agencies: Have no regulatory functions but are essential for the smooth running of America and its dominance in world affairs.
Cabinet Departments
Provides basic necessities to the people.
Ex: Department of Defense (DOD)
Regulatory Agencies
Creates and enforces rules meant for the benefit of the people.
Ex: Federal Trade Commission (FTC)
Government Corporations
Provides services that otherwise could have been done by a private.
Ex: Amtrak
Independent Executive Agencies
Have no regulatory functions but are essential for the smooth running of America and its dominance in world affairs.
Ex: Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)
Captured Bureaucracies
When the industry the agency was supposed to regulate has an advantage over it.
Ex: Department of Agriculture from sugar industry.
Structure of the U.S. Federal Court system
In short, the U.S. District Courts serve as the basis (Plus Trade, Bankruptcy, Tax, Court Claims) with the upper level being Circuit courts and then finally the Supreme Court.
How Supreme Court Decisions are written
Written with the majority opinion and the dissenting opinion.
How Supreme Court decides to hear a case
With a 4/9 majority opinion to view it.
Judicial Restraint
Strict interpretation of the U.S. Constitution. There should be less supreme court decisions than Judicial Activism. Should only check whether in violation of the Constitution.
Judicial Activism
Loose interpretation of the U.S. Constitution. There should be more supreme court decisions than Judicial Restraint. Usually for personal freedom, rights, and protection.
Supreme Court Judicial Selection Process
President appoints with advice and consent from Congress.
Jurisdiction
Authority of a court to hear and decide the issue in a particular case.
Free Speech is not protected when
Obscenity, child pornography, defamatory speech, false advertising, true threats, and fighting words.
Establishment Clause
The first clause of the First Amendment it directs the national government not to sanction an official religion.
Free Exercise Clause
The second clause of the first amendment; it prohibits the U.S government from interfering with a citizens right to practice his or her religion.
Exclusionary Rule
Information gathered illegally cannot be used by the court.
Rights of the Accused (Miranda Rights)
Miranda rights allow you to choose not to answer an officer's questions, and you may request an attorney. However, you must affirmatively invoke your rights to remain silent and to an attorney. Once you invoke your right to remain silent, police must stop questioning you.
Equal Rights Amendment (19th)
Equal rights for women like voting.
Affirmative Action
Policies and programs aimed at promoting equal opportunity and diversity in areas such as education and employment.
Political Socialization
The process by which we acquire the things we believe.
Agents of Political Socialization
#1Parents and Family, peers, gender, age, religious attainment, education level, profession, and media consumption.
When polling, we must consider:
What to ask for, who to ask for, how many people to ask for, who is asking, the language of the questions, and the time period to ask.
The Four Categories of Public Policy
Majoritarian, Interest Group, Client, and Entrepreneurial.
Majoritarian
dispersed costs and dispersed benefits.
Interest Group
Concentrated costs and concentrated benefits.
Client
Dispersed costs and concentrated benefits.
Entrepreneurial
Concentrated costs and dispersed benefits.
Monetary Policy
Trying to repair the economy by altering the money supply.
Ex: Interest rates
Fiscal policy
Is trying to repair the economy by manipulating taxes and spending.
Ex: New Deal Policy
Progressive Taxes
The federal income tax rate increases in percentage as income increases.
Ex: Income tax
Flat Taxes
These are taxes based on a flat percentage.
Ex: Property tax
Regressive Taxes
A set percentage on all purchases.
Ex: Sales Tax
Political Ideology graph
See image.
Examples of Formal Barriers to Voting
The date and time that voting are allowed.
Examples of Informal Barriers to Voting
People become disgusted by the campaigns and don’t vote or polarization.
Examples of Boosting Voting
Vote By Mail and Motor Voter Legislation.
Gerrymandering
Drawing of district maps based off of political landscape.
