Biol 112 Lab exam 1

Calculate Allelic Frequency

number of desired allele present in population/total number of alleles present in the population ℗

Calculate genotypic frequency

number of desired genotypic present within the population/total number of genotypes present in a population (q)

Determine expected genotypic frequency

q^2

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1

describes the genetic variation in a population and determines it will remain constant from one generation to the next without disturbing factors

Natural Selection

some genotypes are more likely to survive than others

* predation: predators present within the environment of the species being observed

Sexual Selection

a defining factor in which sexual desirability impacts a species ability to survive and continue their genetic line

Genetic Drift

change in the gene frequency from one generation to the next from random chance

Gene Flow

happens where individuals from the population leave and remove their alleles from the original population or when new alleles are added to the population (emigration vs. immigration)

* genotypic and allelic frequencies are changed

Mutation

introduction of a new allele into the population via random change of an existing allele

* most often results in lower fitness for the individual
* quickly eliminated from the population unless completely masked by the presence of a good allele
* rarely will improve fitness for individual

horizontal gene transfer

incorporation of DNA from other, unrelated organisms

fundamental characteristics of bacteria

* presence of a cell wall made from peptidoglycan
* cocci: spherical shape
* bacillus: rod-shaped
* spirillum: spiral-shaped
* Ex: bacillus, coccus, spirillum, and cylindrospermum

cyanobacteria

* bacillus and/or coccus
* contain thylakoids
* can photosynthesize
* called heterocyst’s
* focused on nitrogen fixation
* have colony members known as akinetes
* spore-form cells with thick cell wall to protect from harsh environmental conditions
* gave rise to chloroplasts (endosymbiosis)

Fundamental characteristics of archaea

* lack peptidoglycan
* have advanced features (histones nad introns)
* extremophiles
* have unique branching hydrocarbons in the cell membranes (enhance cell’s structural support)

fundamental characteristics of eukarya

* contain a true nucleus
* protists: small, mostly single-celled organisms
* not plants, animals or fungi
* use flagella, ciliar or pseudopodia for movement
* live in varied environments
* varied nutrient sources (hetero-+ autotrophs)
* 1+ nucleus per cell

unikonta - amoebozoa

most distinct feature is the lobe- or tube-shaped pseudopodia

* large + extend from anywhere on the cell
* ex: amoeba and slime mold

“SAR” - stramenopiles

often have two flagella on each cell: one smooth and one “hairy”

* ex: diatons and achyla
* also golden algae, brown algae, oomycetes, and diatoms

“SAR” - alveolates

have a membrane enclosed sac (alveolus) just beneath the plasma membrane

* some are photosynthetic and others are heterotrophic


* ex: dinoflagellates, apicomplexans, and ciliates

“SAR” - Rhizarians

have elaborate shells (tests) and thin pseudopodia

* Ex: radiolarians, foraminiferans, and cercozoans

Excavata

have a feeding groove on one side

* asymmetrical + usually single celled

Excavata - Euglenozoa

usually mixotrophic but some are parasitic

* Ex: euglena

Archaeplastida

all are photosynthetic

* most display alternation of generations

Archaeplastida - Chlorophytes

have chlorophyll a + b and chloroplasts

* cell walls have cellulose
* store carbs as starch
* Ex: chlamydomonas (2 opposing, anterior flagella) and Volvox (colonial)

Archaeplastida - Charophytes

resemble land plants in morphology + reproductive strategies)

* Ex: sporigyra

seeds

protect and nourish an embryo

* provide a way for the progeny to be moved by means other than water

vascular tissue

used to move water and nutrients throughout a plant

* addition of a root system lets the collection of water and nutrients happen from deeper in the ground and movement of the molecules to distant parts of the plant using the shoot system

nonvascular plants

bryophytes (hepaticophyta, anthocertophyta and bryophyta) are seedless and nonvascular

* lack of lignin to increase stability
* small and limited to damp habitats
* ex: liverworts and moss

vascular (tracheophytes) seedless plants

lycophytes (club mosses, quillworts, spike moss) and monilophytes (horsetails, whisk ferns and true ferns)

* gametes are relatively unprotected and found in the gametangium
* rely on water to more spores for fertilization
* leaves

vascular (tracheophytes) seed plants

spermatophytes

gymnosperms: seeds w/out fruit

* usually have some form of cone with the ovules and a cone containing pollen
* coniferophyta, cycadophyta, ginkophyta and gnetophyta

angiosperms: seed plants with fruit

* monocots and dicots
* elaborate flower to attract pollinators
* seeds encased in an ovary that forms a fruit