Calculate Allelic Frequency
number of desired allele present in population/total number of alleles present in the population â„—
Calculate genotypic frequency
number of desired genotypic present within the population/total number of genotypes present in a population (q)
Determine expected genotypic frequency
q^2
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1
describes the genetic variation in a population and determines it will remain constant from one generation to the next without disturbing factors
Natural Selection
some genotypes are more likely to survive than others
predation: predators present within the environment of the species being observed
Sexual Selection
a defining factor in which sexual desirability impacts a species ability to survive and continue their genetic line
Genetic Drift
change in the gene frequency from one generation to the next from random chance
Gene Flow
happens where individuals from the population leave and remove their alleles from the original population or when new alleles are added to the population (emigration vs. immigration)
genotypic and allelic frequencies are changed
Mutation
introduction of a new allele into the population via random change of an existing allele
most often results in lower fitness for the individual
quickly eliminated from the population unless completely masked by the presence of a good allele
rarely will improve fitness for individual
horizontal gene transfer
incorporation of DNA from other, unrelated organisms
fundamental characteristics of bacteria
presence of a cell wall made from peptidoglycan
cocci: spherical shape
bacillus: rod-shaped
spirillum: spiral-shaped
Ex: bacillus, coccus, spirillum, and cylindrospermum
cyanobacteria
bacillus and/or coccus
contain thylakoids
can photosynthesize
called heterocyst’s
focused on nitrogen fixation
have colony members known as akinetes
spore-form cells with thick cell wall to protect from harsh environmental conditions
gave rise to chloroplasts (endosymbiosis)
Fundamental characteristics of archaea
lack peptidoglycan
have advanced features (histones nad introns)
extremophiles
have unique branching hydrocarbons in the cell membranes (enhance cell’s structural support)
fundamental characteristics of eukarya
contain a true nucleus
protists: small, mostly single-celled organisms
not plants, animals or fungi
use flagella, ciliar or pseudopodia for movement
live in varied environments
varied nutrient sources (hetero-+ autotrophs)
1+ nucleus per cell
unikonta - amoebozoa
most distinct feature is the lobe- or tube-shaped pseudopodia
large + extend from anywhere on the cell
ex: amoeba and slime mold
“SAR” - stramenopiles
often have two flagella on each cell: one smooth and one “hairy”
ex: diatons and achyla
also golden algae, brown algae, oomycetes, and diatoms
“SAR” - alveolates
have a membrane enclosed sac (alveolus) just beneath the plasma membrane
some are photosynthetic and others are heterotrophic
ex: dinoflagellates, apicomplexans, and ciliates
“SAR” - Rhizarians
have elaborate shells (tests) and thin pseudopodia
Ex: radiolarians, foraminiferans, and cercozoans
Excavata
have a feeding groove on one side
asymmetrical + usually single celled
Excavata - Euglenozoa
usually mixotrophic but some are parasitic
Ex: euglena
Archaeplastida
all are photosynthetic
most display alternation of generations
Archaeplastida - Chlorophytes
have chlorophyll a + b and chloroplasts
cell walls have cellulose
store carbs as starch
Ex: chlamydomonas (2 opposing, anterior flagella) and Volvox (colonial)
Archaeplastida - Charophytes
resemble land plants in morphology + reproductive strategies)
Ex: sporigyra
seeds
protect and nourish an embryo
provide a way for the progeny to be moved by means other than water
vascular tissue
used to move water and nutrients throughout a plant
addition of a root system lets the collection of water and nutrients happen from deeper in the ground and movement of the molecules to distant parts of the plant using the shoot system
nonvascular plants
bryophytes (hepaticophyta, anthocertophyta and bryophyta) are seedless and nonvascular
lack of lignin to increase stability
small and limited to damp habitats
ex: liverworts and moss
vascular (tracheophytes) seedless plants
lycophytes (club mosses, quillworts, spike moss) and monilophytes (horsetails, whisk ferns and true ferns)
gametes are relatively unprotected and found in the gametangium
rely on water to more spores for fertilization
leaves
vascular (tracheophytes) seed plants
spermatophytes
gymnosperms: seeds w/out fruit
usually have some form of cone with the ovules and a cone containing pollen
coniferophyta, cycadophyta, ginkophyta and gnetophyta
angiosperms: seed plants with fruit
monocots and dicots
elaborate flower to attract pollinators
seeds encased in an ovary that forms a fruit