AP Psych Chapter 2 Vocab

Heredity

The transmission of genetic information from biological parents to offspring.

Nature

The inherent biological and genetic factors that influence an individual's psychological development, traits, behaviors, and cognitive abilities.

Nurture

The environmental influences and experiences that shape an individual's psychological development, behaviors, and cognitive processes.

Genetic predisposition

An increased likelihood of developing certain traits or behaviors based on genetic factors.

Evolutionary perspective

The study of how psychological traits and behaviors have evolved over time to enhance survival and reproductive success.

Natural selection

The process by which organisms with traits that are better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce.

Eugenics

A controversial movement aimed at improving the genetic quality of a population, often through selective breeding.

Twin studies

Research that examines similarities and differences between identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins to assess the influence of genetics and environment.

Family studies

Research that analyzes similarities and differences among family members to understand the interplay of genetics and environment.

Adoption studies

Research that investigates similarities between adopted children and their biological and adoptive families to assess the impact of genetics versus environment.

Central nervous system

The part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral nervous system

The part of the nervous system that connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body.

Autonomic nervous system

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary bodily functions.

Sympathetic nervous system

The division of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for stress-related activities.

Parasympathetic nervous system

The division of the autonomic nervous system that conserves energy and restores the body to a calm state.

Somatic nervous system

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movements.

Neurons

The basic building blocks of the nervous system that transmit information through electrical and chemical signals.

Glial cells

Supportive cells in the nervous system that provide insulation, nutrients, and support to neurons.

Reflex arc

The neural pathway that mediates a reflex action, involving sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons.

Sensory neurons

Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the central nervous system.

Motor neurons

Neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands.

Interneurons

Neurons that connect sensory and motor neurons and process information within the central nervous system.

Neural transmission

The process by which signals are sent through neurons via electrical impulses and neurotransmitters.

Action potential

A brief electrical charge that travels down a neuron, triggering the release of neurotransmitters.

All-or-nothing principle

The principle stating that a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all.

Depolarization

The process during the action potential when the inside of the neuron becomes more positive.

Refractory period

The period following an action potential during which a neuron cannot fire again.

Resting potential

The state of a neuron when it is not firing, characterized by a negative charge inside the cell.

Reuptake

The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron after transmitting a signal.

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential in a neuron.

Multiple sclerosis

A disease that affects the central nervous system, characterized by the degeneration of myelin sheaths around neurons.

Myasthenia gravis

An autoimmune disorder that affects communication between nerves and muscles, leading to weakness.

Excitatory neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters that increase the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential.

Inhibitory neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters that decrease the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with pleasure, reward, and motor control.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that regulates mood, appetite, and sleep.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in arousal and alertness.

Glutamate

The main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, important for learning and memory.

GABA

The main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain, which helps to reduce neuronal excitability.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that act as natural painkillers and are associated with feelings of pleasure.

Substance P

A neurotransmitter involved in the transmission of pain signals.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that plays a key role in muscle movement and memory.

Hormones

Chemical messengers produced by glands that regulate various functions in the body.

Pituitary Gland

The 'master gland' that regulates other endocrine glands and controls growth and metabolism.

Adrenaline

A hormone released during stress that increases heart rate and energy availability.

Leptin

A hormone that helps to regulate energy balance by inhibiting hunger.

Ghrelin

A hormone that stimulates appetite and promotes food intake.

Melatonin

A hormone that regulates sleep-wake cycles.

Oxytocin

A hormone involved in social bonding, reproduction, and childbirth.

Contralateral hemispheric organization

The principle that each hemisphere of the brain controls the opposite side of the body.

Plasticity

The brain's ability to change and adapt in response to experience.

EEG

Electroencephalogram, a test that measures electrical activity in the brain.

fMRI

Functional magnetic resonance imaging, a technique for measuring brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow.

Lesioning

The process of intentionally damaging a part of the brain to study its function.

Association areas

Regions of the brain that integrate information from different sensory modalities.

Somatosensory cortex

The area of the brain responsible for processing sensory information from the body.

Frontal lobes

The part of the brain associated with reasoning, planning, problem-solving, and emotional regulation.

Linguistic processing

The brain's ability to understand and produce language.

Higher-order thinking

Complex cognitive processes such as analysis, evaluation, and creation.

Executive functioning

A set of cognitive processes that include working memory, flexible thinking, and self-control.

Prefrontal cortex

The part of the frontal lobe involved in complex behaviors, decision making, and moderating social behavior.

Motor cortex

The area of the brain responsible for planning, controlling, and executing voluntary movements.

Split brain research

Studies involving patients with severed corpus callosum to understand the functions of the two hemispheres.

Epilepsy

A neurological disorder characterized by recurrent seizures due to abnormal electrical activity in the brain.

Hemispheric specialization

The idea that each hemisphere of the brain has specialized functions.

Broca's area

A region in the frontal lobe associated with speech production.

Wernicke's area

A region in the temporal lobe associated with language comprehension.

Aphasia

A language disorder that affects a person's ability to communicate, often due to brain damage.

Brainstem

The part of the brain that connects the brain to the spinal cord and controls basic life functions.

Medulla

The part of the brainstem that controls vital functions such as heartbeat and breathing.

Reticular activating system

A network of neurons in the brainstem that regulates wakefulness and sleep-wake transitions.

Reward center

A group of brain structures that are activated by rewarding stimuli and are involved in pleasure and reinforcement.

Cerebellum

The part of the brain that coordinates voluntary movements and balance.

Cerebral cortex

The outer layer of the brain involved in complex functions such as perception, thought, and decision-making.

Limbic system

A group of structures in the brain involved in emotion, memory, and motivation.

Thalamus

The brain structure that relays sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex.

Hypothalamus

A brain region that controls various autonomic functions and regulates hormonal activity.

Hippocampus

A brain structure involved in the formation of new memories.

Amygdala

A brain structure involved in emotion regulation, particularly fear and pleasure responses.

Corpus callosum

The bundle of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain.

Occipital lobes

The regions of the brain located at the back of the head, responsible for visual processing.

Temporal lobes

The regions of the brain located on the sides of the head, involved in processing auditory information and memory.

Parietal lobes

The regions of the brain located at the top of the head, responsible for processing sensory information related to touch and spatial awareness.

Heritability

The proportion of variation in a trait among individuals in a population that can be attributed to genetic differences.

Anxiety Disorders

Mental health conditions characterized by excessive fear or anxiety, often influenced by genetic predisposition.

Depression

A mood disorder that causes persistent feelings of sadness and loss of interest, which can have a genetic component.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by difficulty maintaining attention, hyperactivity, and impulsive behavior, often with a genetic basis.

Bipolar Disorder

A mental health condition marked by extreme mood swings, including emotional highs (mania or hypomania) and lows (depression), with a genetic influence.

Schizophrenia

A severe mental disorder characterized by distortions in thinking, perception, emotions, language, and sense of self, with a significant genetic component.

Alcoholism and Substance Use Disorders

Conditions characterized by an individual's inability to control their use of alcohol or drugs, influenced by genetic factors.

Autism Spectrum Disorders

A range of developmental disorders characterized by challenges with social skills, repetitive behaviors, and communication, with a genetic predisposition.

Evolutionary Psychology

A theoretical approach that explains psychological traits as adaptations that evolved to solve problems related to survival and reproduction.

Behaviorism

A psychological perspective that focuses on observable behaviors and the ways they are learned through interaction with the environment.

Chronic Pain Conditions

Long-lasting pain that can be influenced by genetic factors, affecting an individual's experience and management of pain.

Sleep Disorders

Conditions that affect the quality, timing, and duration of sleep, which can have genetic predispositions.

Sensory Processing Sensitivity

A personality trait characterized by a heightened sensitivity to sensory input, which may have a genetic basis.

Risk-taking Behavior

Actions that involve potential loss or danger, which can be influenced by genetic predisposition.

Aggression or Impulsivity

Behavioral traits that can be influenced by genetic factors, leading to aggressive actions or impulsive decisions.

Obesity and Body Weight Regulation

Conditions related to excessive body weight that can be influenced by genetic factors affecting metabolism and appetite.

Psychological Perspectives

Different theoretical approaches in psychology that explain human behavior and mental processes, including evolutionary psychology, behaviorism, and cognitive psychology.