Which type of experimental design involves participants being matched into pairs based on a characteristic and then each member of the pair takes part in a different condition?
matched pairs
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What are individual differences between participants, usually affect the internal validity of an experiment called?
participant variable
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Which type of experimental design involves all participants completing all conditions of the experiment?
repeated measures
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Which type of experimental design involves participants being placed in separate groups and complete only one condition of the experiment?
independent groups
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What happens when performance is affected by conditions that the participant experienced first like practice effect or boredom effect?
order effects
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How can participant variables be controlled?
use of random allocation
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How can order effects be controlled?
(use of) counterbalancing
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What is the extent to which the results can be generalised to real life?
ecological validity
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What is the extent to which the results of a study can be generalised over time?
temporal validity
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What is validity within the experiment, whether the researchers tested what they expected to test?
internal validity
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What EV is the study suffering from when participants in a study being aware that they are taking part in a study and act unnaturally to satisfy the researcher?
demand characteristics
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What is the extent to which findings from a study can be generalised to other contexts: ecological and temporal validity are examples of external validity)?
external validity
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What is the morality of the experiment?
ethics
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What are the five ethical issues?
deception, lack of informed consent, lack of rights to withdraw, lack of protection from harm, lack of confidentiality
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What is the solution for deception?
debriefing participants at the end
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What is the solution for lack of informed consent, if deception was used?
use of presumptive consent
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What is happening when participants are deliberately misled about the nature of the study; they are not told the true aims of the study?
deception
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How can researchers ensure participants' rights to withdraw?
constantly remind participants that they have the right to withdraw at any point, even after the experiment is over
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How can researchers ensure that participants are protected from harm?
ethics board or ethical committee (can decide whether the experiment can take place); researchers can abandon the study
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How can researchers ensure confidentiality?
use of pseudonyms (when referring to participants in reports)
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What type of research analyses the strength and direction of a relationship between two co-variables?
correlations
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Which type of data are measurable and are often numerical data?
quantitative data
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Which type of data are often more difficult to analyse since it is descriptive?
qualitative data
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What are the three main types of correlations?
positive, negative and no correlations
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What can't correlations establish?
cause-and-effect
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Which type of research methods can establish causal relationships?
experiments
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What is the number that represents the strength and direction of the relationship between two co-variables?
correlation coefficient
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What is the correlation coefficient for a perfect negative correlation?
-1
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What is the correlation coefficient for a perfect positive correlation
+1
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What is the correlation coefficient needed to say that there is a strong correlation between two co-variables?
+0.8
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What is an advantage of using a correlational analysis?
easy to analyse, prompt new lines of research
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Are observational techniques experimental or non-experimental?
non-experimental
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Which type of observation involve the observation being carried out in the natural setting, and the researcher does not influence the situation?
naturalistic observations
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Which type of observation involves the observations being carried out in a regulated setting?
controlled observations
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What are some strengths of naturalistic observations?
high ecological validity, low demand characteristics
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What are some strengths of controlled observations?
high internal validity, easy to replicate and check for reliability
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In which type of observations are participants aware that their behaviour is being watched and recorded?
overt observations
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In which type of observations are participants not aware that their behaviour is being watched and recorded?
covert observations
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Which ethical code of conduct are covert observations violating?
lacked of informed consent
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What is a strength of covert observations?
lower chance of demand characteristics
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In which type of observations are researchers part of the group that they are observing?
participant observations
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In which type of observations are researchers not part of the group they are observing - they observed as an outsider?
non-participant observations
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What is a strength of participant observations?
having first-hand insights, clearer details, higher internal validity
What is the term used to describe when observer's expectations influence what the researcher sees or hears or even the data that they recorded?
observer bias
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What is the technique of choosing which behaviours to observe and record that records behaviour at specific time intervals?
time sampling
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What is the observation technique that involves continuously watching a certain behaviour and counting the number of times that even occurs in the targeted group?
event sampling
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What is a strength of event sampling?
infrequent behaviours can be recorded
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What is a strength of time sampling?
easy to carry out due to a reduced number of observations
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What is a set of specific, observable, clearly operationalised behaviours that is created as a subset of a target behaviour called?
behavioural categories
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What is a set of written questions on a topic to assess participants' thoughts, feelings and opinions?
questionnaires
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What type of question is used in a questionnaire that offers a fixed number of responses and produced quantitative data?
closed questions
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What type of question is used in a questionnaire that does not have a fixed range and collects qualitative data?
open questions
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What is a weakness of using closed questions?
response set bias (where they would respond in similar way at the same end of the rating scale)
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How can we chance whether the questions on the questionnaire is ambiguous or not?
use a "pilot study"
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What will the research suffer from if participants are not honest when answering, and would answer differently to put them in a more positive light (seen as right)?
social desirability bias
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What is a solution to social desirability bias?
ensure confidentiality
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What is a self-report technique that involves asking participants questions face-to-face or over the phone on a topic to assess participants' opinions and thoughts?
interview
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What are the two types of interviews?
structured and unstructured interviews
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What the type of interview that is a mixture of both structured and unstructured interviews?
semi-structured
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Which type of interview is made up of a pre-determined set of questions that are asked in a fixed order, similar to designing a questionnaire?
structured interviews
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Which type of interview allowed more free-flowing conversations with no set questions and questions will be developed as the interview progressed?
unstructured interviews
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What is a strength of structured interviews?
easy to replicate, quick, cheap
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What is a strength of unstructured interviews?
rich and more detailed, give insights, able to observe body language
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What is a weakness of structured interviews?
social desirability bias, restrictive (no elaboration), lower generalisability
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What is a weakness of unstructured interviews?
interviewer bias, interviewers need to be trained, social desirability bias
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What type of question is allowed in semi-structured interviews?
follow-ups
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What is a type of non-experimental study that involves an in-depth investigation of a single, unusual individual, group, institution or event?
case studies
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What are some famous examples of case studies?
Genie, Clive Wearing, KF, PM
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What techniques can be used in case studies?
observations, interviews, tests (IQ), experiments
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What is the word used to describe studies that go on for a long period of time?
longitudinal
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What is the word used to describe the use of a variety of different research methods?
triangulation
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What are some advantages of case studies?
detailed data, allows rare/usually-unethical behaviours to be studied
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What are some disadvantages of case studies?
lack population validity, raises ethical issues
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What is defined as a large group of individuals who share specific characteristics that a research is interested in studying?
(target) population
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What is the process of drawing out a representative group from the population?
sampling
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Which type of sampling technique involves selecting anyone who is willing and available to take part at the time?
opportunity sampling
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Which sampling technique involves selecting individuals who have put themselves forward to take part in research?
volunteer sampling
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Where do researchers advertise in volunteer sampling?
newspapaers, posters, in universities
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What is an advantage of opportunity and volunteer sampling?
quick, convenient, economical
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What is a disadvantage of using volunteer and opportunity sampling?
Studied by 26 people
