Introduction to Sociology – Key Vocabulary

A comprehensive set of vocabulary flashcards covering foundational sociological terms and theories discussed in the lecture notes.

C. Wright Mills

American sociologist who coined the term “sociological imagination.”

Sociological Imagination

The ability to see the link between individual experiences (private troubles) and larger social forces (public issues).

Structure

Stable, enduring patterns of social relations that limit or shape individual agency.

Agency

The capacity of individuals and groups to act independently and make free choices.

Social Structure

The organized pattern of social relationships and institutions that together compose society.

Social Order

The maintenance of established patterns of relationships and expected behaviors in society.

Social Change

Transformations over time in social institutions, culture, and patterns of interaction.

Social Stratification

The hierarchical layering of groups in society based on wealth, power, and prestige.

Primary Data

Information collected firsthand by a researcher for a specific study.

Secondary Data

Pre-existing information gathered by others that researchers analyze.

Stereotype

A rigid, oversimplified view that attributes identical characteristics to all members of a group.

Historical Factors

Past events and contexts that shape current social realities.

Psychopathy

Personality disorder marked by impaired empathy, remorse, boldness, and egocentric traits.

Paradigm

A widely accepted theoretical framework that guides research and analysis in a discipline.

Structural Functionalism

Macro theory that views society as a system whose parts work together to promote stability.

Conflict Theory

Macro theory emphasizing inequality, power struggles, and conflict as engines of social change.

Feminist Theory

Perspective focusing on gendered power relations and striving to understand and reduce gender inequality.

Postmodern Theory

Approach that critiques universal truths, highlights plurality of identities, and links knowledge with power.

Symbolic Interactionism

Micro theory examining how people create meaning through face-to-face interaction and symbols.

Macrosociology

The study of large-scale social structures and institutions.

Microsociology

The study of individual interactions and small-group processes.

Social Fact

Durkheim’s term for patterned ways of acting, thinking, and feeling external to the individual and coercive.

Manifest Function

Intended and easily recognized consequence of a social process or institution.

Latent Function

Unintended and less obvious consequence of a social process or institution.

Latent Dysfunction

Unintended, unrecognized, and harmful consequence of a social process.

Anomie

Durkheim’s concept for normlessness or weak social regulation leading to deviance.

Alienation

Marx’s term for workers’ sense of powerlessness and estrangement under capitalism.

Bourgeoisie

Capitalist class that owns the means of production.

Proletariat

Working class that sells labor for wages.

Class Consciousness

Shared awareness by a social class of its common interests and need for collective action.

False Consciousness

Misguided belief by subordinate groups that the existing system works in their best interest.

Culture

Material and immaterial creations that people transmit from generation to generation to solve real-life problems.

Subculture

Group with distinct values and practices that differ from but do not directly oppose the dominant culture.

Counterculture

Group that rejects and actively opposes key elements of the dominant culture.

High Culture

Cultural forms associated with society’s elite, requiring specialized knowledge or cultural capital.

Popular Culture

Cultural products and practices enjoyed by the majority with limited cultural power.

Mass Culture

Commercially produced culture disseminated to large audiences, often by powerful corporations.

Cultural Capital

Bourdieu’s term for knowledge, skills, and tastes that confer social advantage.

Habitus

Internalized dispositions and habits shaped by one’s social environment (Bourdieu).

Consumerism

Tendency to define ourselves and our worth through the goods we purchase.

Social Norm

Rule or expectation guiding behavior within a group or society.

Folkway

Everyday, informal norm with mild sanctions for violation.

Mores

Formalized norms deemed essential; violations elicit strong sanctions.

Taboo

Deeply ingrained norm; violation provokes disgust or revulsion.

Sanction

Reward or punishment in response to adherence or violation of norms.

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

Idea that language shapes perceptions and categories of experience.

Sociolinguistics

Study of the relationship between language and social behavior.

Socialization

Lifelong process of learning culture and developing a sense of self.

Primary Socialization

Initial learning of cultural norms and values during childhood.

Secondary Socialization

Subsequent learning that occurs throughout life in specific roles and settings.

Biological Determinism

View that behavior is controlled solely by genetics and physiology.

Social (Cultural) Determinism

View that behavior is shaped entirely by social environment and learning.

Behaviourism

Theory that behavior is learned through stimulus–response conditioning using rewards and punishments.

Id

Freud’s component of the mind representing innate, instinctual drives.

Superego

Freud’s internalized moral conscience derived from socialization.

Ego

Freud’s rational mediator between id impulses and superego demands.

Self

Social product consisting of ideas and attitudes about who one is as an independent being.

Stigma

Discrediting attribute that taints an individual’s social identity (Goffman).

Deviance

Behavior that strays from accepted norms; socially defined rather than inherently wrong.

Neoliberalism

Policies and ideas that promote free markets, privatization, and minimal state intervention.

Moral Panic

Heightened societal concern over an issue or group portrayed as a threat to social order.

Moral Entrepreneur

Individual who campaigns to define and enforce new rules around a perceived social problem.

Social Constructionism

Perspective that reality, including categories like deviance or race, is created through social processes.

Essentialism

Belief that certain phenomena have an inherent, unchanging nature.

Ableism

Discrimination and prejudice against people with disabilities.

Strain Theory

Merton’s theory that deviance results when individuals cannot achieve culturally approved goals by legitimate means.

Status Frustration

Cohen’s concept of lower-class youths’ dissatisfaction with middle-class standards leading to subculture formation.

Labelling Theory

Idea that deviance is a result of societal reaction and labels that become internalized by individuals.

Social Inequality

Persistent differences in access to resources, opportunities, and privileges among groups.

Surplus Value

Marx’s term for profits produced by workers but appropriated by capitalists.

Means of Production

Resources and facilities (land, factories, technology) used to produce goods and services.

Social Mobility

Movement of individuals or groups within a social hierarchy.

Liberal Ideology

Belief system emphasizing individual autonomy, free markets, and the possibility of social mobility.

World-Systems Theory

Wallerstein’s model viewing the world economy as a hierarchical system of core, semi-periphery, and periphery nations.

Lumpenproletariat

Marx’s term for marginalized underclass beneath the working class (e.g., homeless).

Race

Socially constructed category based on perceived physical differences; has no biological basis.

Racialization

Social process of assigning racial meaning to groups, affecting their access to resources and power.

Scientific Racism

Use of pseudo-scientific techniques to justify racial hierarchies and discrimination.

Ethnicity

Cultural group identity rooted in shared heritage, language, or ancestry.

Intersectionality

Theory that multiple social categories (race, gender, class, etc.) intersect to shape experiences of oppression or privilege.

Meritocracy

System where status and rewards are allocated based on individual talent and effort.

Hidden Curriculum

Unstated lessons, values, and norms conveyed by the schooling process.

Credentialism

Preference for applicants with educational qualifications, regardless of job relevance.

Vertical Mosaic

John Porter’s term describing Canada’s hierarchical ethnic stratification.

Assimilation Model (Education)

Early education model focused on monocultural nation-building, often suppressing minority cultures.

Multicultural Education Model

Approach recognizing cultural diversity; criticized for emphasizing group differences without addressing inequality.

Anti-Racism/Anti-Oppression Model

Educational approach promoting equity by challenging systemic racism and power imbalances.

Religion (Durkheim)

Social institution distinguishing the sacred from the profane and fostering social cohesion.

Religion (Marx)

“Opium of the people” that maintains false consciousness and justifies inequality.

Protestant Ethic

Weber’s idea that Protestant values of hard work and thrift fostered the rise of capitalism.

Animism

Belief that non-human entities possess spirits or souls.