HDFS 301 Final Exam

Self esteem

the degree to which individuals feel positively or negatively about themselves

Self concept

the way individuals think about and characterize themselves

How do levels of self esteem vary across the sexes?

adolescent girls are more vulnerable to low self esteem because they are more concerned about physical attractiveness, dating, and peer acceptance; adolescent boys have higher self esteem because social comparisons, body image pressures, and gendered expectations disproportionately affect girls

How do levels of self esteem affect gender typicality?

gender intensification hypothesis: societal pressure for gender typicality increases in adolescence, leads to gender differences, and causes stress for the gender atypical

Temperament

biologically and genetically based; present from infancy and shown in natural tendencies

Personality

emerges over time through the interactions of temperament and experiences/environments; shaped by both biology and experiences

Relationship between temperament and personality

temperament provides the foundation; personality is the structure that is built on it and forms through interaction with the world

Identity development

adolescents go through cognitive changes, physical changes, and changing social roles to explore the world and find a sense of who they are

Big 5

extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, openness to experience

Extraversion

outgoing and energetic

Agreeableness

kind and nice

conscientiousness

responsibility

neuroticism

anxious or tense

openness to experience

curiosity

influences to the big 5

forged out of infant temperament

influence of historical trends in career options on identity development

historically, there were fewer roles for women compared to the career options that are available now; more roles —> more possible selves; choices are more complicated, which creates more stress

4 types of identity statuses

achievement, foreclosure, diffusion, moratorium

achievement

present commitment and completed exploration; explored options and made self-chosen commitments; most adaptive status

foreclosure

present commitment but absent exploration; commitments are made without personal exploration; short-term stability with later issues

diffusion

absent commitment and absent exploration; have not explored options or made commitments; least adaptive

moratorium

absent commitment but present exploration; actively exploring different options; transitional period, which leads to later achievement

negative identity

self that is undesirable to parents or the community; reactive and antisocial; defining oneself as NOT the preferred identity

in-class example of negative identity

Muriel was born in the Philippines to an unstable family. She was adopted by a Canadian couple, but her adoptive dad leaves early. Muriel feels differently from her adoptive siblings and is diagnosed with several disorders. She hits puberty hard and struggles with decision-making, getting into drugs. She is sent back to the Philippines at 15 and gets angry and more oppositional. She develops a negative identity, defining herself oppositely of family expectations. “Whatever you do to help will make me want to do worse.”

“false self” behavior

acting in a way that one knows is inauthentic or fake; most likely during initial dating and least likely with close friends

in order to participate in false-self behavior, one must first…

know who they are

consistent false-self behavior is problematic and predicts

low self-esteem, depression, and vulnerability to peer pressure

ethnic pride protective because

a strong sense of ethnic identity is associated with higher self-esteem, self-efficacy, and better mental health

for the minoritized, ethnic pride is

protective and is associated with less drug use

for Whites, ethnic pride is

a risk factor and is associated with more drug use (also related to white supremacy and the KKK)

4 ethnic identity orientations

assimilated, marginalized, separated, bicultural

assimilated

adopting majority norms and standards; rejecting/neglecting those of own group

marginalized

live within but not become part of majority culture; feel estranged and outcast; not identify with own group

separated

associating only with own culture; rejecting majority culture

bicultural

maintaining ties to both the majority and minority cultures

2 domains of ethnic identity

identification with majority; identification with own group

3 aspects of racial identity from Multidimensional Model of Racial Identity (MMRI)

racial centrality, private regard, public regard

racial centrality

importance of race in defining identity

private regard

feelings about being member of group

public regard

idea of how others view group

4 groups in MMRI

buffering/defensive, low connected/high affinity, idealized, alienated

buffering/defensive

high in centrality, medium in private regard, low in public regard; least likely to drop out; most likely to go to college

low connected/high affinity

low in centrality, low-medium in private regard, low in public regard

idealized

medium in centrality, medium in private regard, high in public regard; positive school beliefs and strong academic motivation

alienated

low in centrality, medium-low in private regard, very low in public regard; disengaged in school; likely to drop out

unidimensional view on gender variation

male typical or female typical

sex-role stereotype view on gender variation

based on “ideal” behaviors/traits

androgyny

being both masculine and feminine; thought to reflect being “well-adjusted;” androgynous females and masculine males have the highest self-esteem; androgyny is easier for girls, while sex typicality is easier for boys

social acceptance of gender atypicality

gender atypicality worse for boys because they are considered less masculine and better for girls because masculinity is protective

implications of gender typicality vs. atypicality

typicality creates acceptance; masculinity is protective

sexual orientation

who one is attracted to; people are sexually oriented toward same, other, or both sexes

sex-role behavior

behaving in a typically masculine or feminine way

gender identity

feeling male or female; psychological experience of gender; may or may not align with biological sex

3 types of autonomy

emotional, behavioral, moral

emotional autonomy

independence in relationships with others, especially parents; seeing oneself as separate

behavioral autonomy

making independent decisions and following through on them

moral autonomy

independent beliefs and principles; related to peer and parental pressures

detachment

separating from parents

individuation

the gradual process of developing a sense of self that is distinct from parents but is still connected to them; goal is to accept responsibility for choices and actions, independence without rebellion, de-idealizing parents, development of autonomy, a transformation not a detachment, need not be stressful

healthy individuation is…

fostered by close family relationships

distant parent-child relationship contributes to…

individuation with psychological problems

close parent-child relationship contributes to…

individuation without psychological problems

Anna Freud’s perspective on the development of autonomy

psychoanalytic “crisis;” puberty disrupts family system; sexuality increases family tensions; detachment: adolescents driven to emotionally separate and conflicts normal part of detachment and adolescence; flawed view because most people get along with their parents quite well —> sampling issue since she was a psychologist/therapist

authoritative parenting…

models decision-making and encourages the practicing of decision-making; moderating effects; reduces antisocial peer impact; increases prosocial peer impact

beware of…

permissive to authoritarian shift

authoritarian parenting…

increases peer orientation

permissive parenting…

exposes kids to hard choices too early

susceptibility to peer influence…

rises in early adolescence because of increased sensitivity to social acceptance and decreases in late adolescence

peers influence…

day-to-day matters

parents influence…

long-term issues and basic values

good pattern of adolescent advice-seeking

ask large expert group; different experts for different decisions

worst case of adolescent advice-seeking

substituting peers for parents

Kohlberg’s 3 levels of moral reasoning

preconventional, conventional, postconventional

Kohlberg’s Theory

more interested in reasoning behind people’s choices rather than answers/actions themselves

preconventional

focus: punishment/reward; based on perceptions of likelihood of external reward or punishment

step 1: act to avoid negative consequences

step 2: payback and future gain (doing favors with the expectation of future return)
almost all children and many young adolescents

preconventional = individual

conventional

focus: societal rules and norms; right is what agrees with rules established by tradition and authority

step 3: emphasis on care and loyalty to others; conform to a certain role ("good girl/good boy”)

step 4: moral judgements explained by reference to concepts like social order, law, and justice; broader more abstract concepts of society rather than family and friends

conventional = socially-based “conventions”

postconventional

focus: general principles of fairness and kindness; what is right is derived from universal principles

step 5: define morality in terms such as individual rights, human dignity, equality, and mutual obligation; if a law doesn’t further these aims, it should be changed

step 6: moral issues are framed not on selfish needs or conformity to the existing social order but on autonomous universal principles of justice that are valid beyond existing laws and social conditions

post-conventional = abstract

Sullivan

psychological development in interpersonal terms; people grow via relationships

Sullivan: development influenced by…

success in addressing age-level relationship needs

Sullivan: during childhood

infant: affection from parents

young child: play with parents

mid-child: play and acceptance from age mates

Sullivan: during adolescence

preadolescent: sharing and consensual validation (a few close “chumships”)

early adolescent: opposite-sex emotional and physical intimacy

late adolescent: integration in adult society

Erikson

development in psychosocial terms; people grow via social contexts

Erikson: development influenced by…

success in addressing age-level crises/tasks about self/role as an individual in different contexts

Erikson: during childhood

infant: trust vs. mistrust

young to late child: autonomy, motivation

pre-adolescence: industry and competence

Erikson: during adolescence

early-mid adolescence: sense of identity/coherent self

late adolescence: intimacy, closeness with others

Erikson: in truly intimate relationships…

two individuals’ identities fuse, but neither person’s identity is lost; a sense of identity must be developed before intimacy or there will be a loss of self in the relationship and pseudointimacy occurs, where people date but can’t commit

the reality is that…

relationships and identity can contribute to each other with the caveat of early marriage as foreclosure

Ainsworth

developed “strange situation” assessment

Ainsworth: attachment

strong and enduring emotional bond that is usually formed in infancy; primary caregivers who are available and responsive to an infant’s needs allow a child to develop a sense of security with caregivers, self, and the world; the infant knows that the caregiver is dependable, which creates a secure base for the child to then explore the world

3 types of attachment + lack of attachment

secure, anxious-avoidant, anxious-resistant, disorganized

secure attachment

trusting

anxious-avoidant (insecure)

indifference to caregiver

anxious-resistant (insecure)

ambivalence to caregiver

disorganized (lack of attachment)

absence of bond to caregiver (most risk)

secure and insecure attachment styles know how to…

meet emotional needs

K-3rd:

play, common activities, same neighborhood

4-5th:

acceptance, loyalty

6th:

genuineness

7th:

common interests and values

conflicts

young adolescents: over public disrespect

older adolescents: over private matters

over time, friendships change

know more about friends, more responsive, less controlling, more interpersonally sensitive, more empathetic, conflicts resolved with negotiation and disengagement instead of with coercion (similarity between parent-child and child-peer resolution)