CHAPTER 5 PSYCH.

sensory receptors

Specialized cells that detect and respond to sensory stimuli, converting them into neural signals for the brain.

sensation

The process by which sensory receptors detect and respond to external stimuli, converting them into neural signals that the brain interprets.

transduction

The process of converting physical energy from stimuli into neural signals that the brain can understand.

absolute threshold

The minimum intensity of a stimulus that can be detected by the sensory receptors 50% of the time.

Just noticeable difference

The minimum difference in stimulation that a person can detect 50% of the time. It reflects the smallest change in a stimulus that can be perceived.

Webers law

The principle stating that the just noticeable difference between two stimuli is a constant proportion of the original stimulus intensity.

Perception

The process by which sensory information is organized, interpreted, and consciously experienced.

Bottom up processing

A method of perception where sensory information is processed starting from the basic features and building up to a complete perception. This approach emphasizes the role of incoming stimuli in forming our understanding of the environment.

top down processing

A perceptual approach where our expectations, prior knowledge, and experiences influence the interpretation of sensory information, leading to a complete perception.

Necker cube

An optical illusion that demonstrates how the brain can interpret a two-dimensional figure as a three-dimensional object, leading to alternating perceptions.

Hollow face illusion

A visual phenomenon where concave faces appear convex, demonstrating how our brain interprets 3D shapes based on prior knowledge and expectations.

sensory adaptions

The process by which our sensitivity to unchanging stimuli decreases over time, allowing us to focus on changes in our environment. This helps to prevent sensory overload and enhances our ability to detect new stimuli.

in attentional blindness

A psychological phenomenon where an individual fails to perceive an unexpected stimulus in plain sight due to focused attention on another task or object.

Muller-Lyer illusion

A visual illusion that involves two lines of equal length appearing to be different lengths due to the orientation of arrow-like ends, demonstrating how context influences perception.

Ames room

A distorted room that creates an optical illusion, making people appear to change size as they move within it, illustrating how context affects perception.

amplitude

The maximum extent of a wave's displacement from its rest position, often associated with sound and light waves, influencing perceived loudness or brightness.

wavelength

The distance between successive peaks of a wave, which determines its color in the visible spectrum and affects sound frequency.

crest

The highest point of a wave, representing the maximum displacement of a wave from its rest position.

trough

The lowest point of a wave, opposite to the crest, where the wave's displacement is at its minimum.

frequency

The number of waves that pass a given point in a specific amount of time, typically measured in Hertz (Hz). Frequency influences the pitch of sound and the color of light.

visible spectrum

The range of wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation that can be detected by the human eye, typically from about 400 to 700 nanometers.

electromagnetic spectrum

The entire range of wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, including radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays.

longer wavelengths

red

intermediate wavelengths

greens

shorter wavelengths

blue and violet

pitch

the perceived frequency of sound, determining how high or low a sound seems.

rods

Photoreceptor cells in the retina that are responsible for vision in low light conditions and do not detect color.

cones

photoreceptor cells in the retina responsible for color vision and visual acuity.

night blindness

a condition where individuals have difficulty seeing in low light or darkness, often due to a deficiency in rod function.

optic nerve (blind spot)

The point where the optic nerve exits the eye, creating a gap in the visual field where no photoreceptors are present, leading to a blind spot.

cornea

the transparent front part of the eye that covers the iris, pupil, and anterior chamber, playing a crucial role in focusing light onto the retina.

iris

the colored part of the eye that controls the size of the pupil and regulates the amount of light entering the eye.

retina

The light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye that contains photoreceptors, converting light into neural signals for vision.

pupil

the opening in the center of the iris that allows light to enter the eye, adjusting in size to control the amount of light received.

lens

a transparent structure in the eye that focuses light onto the retina, enabling clear vision.

fovea

The small depression in the retina where visual acuity is highest, containing a high concentration of cone photoreceptors.

ganglion cells

neurons located in the retina that receive visual information from photoreceptors and transmit it to the brain via the optic nerve.

optic chiasm

The X-shaped structure formed by the crossing of optic nerve fibers from both eyes, allowing visual information from both hemispheres to be processed together.

trichromatic theory of color vision

The theory that color perception is based on the activity of three types of cone photoreceptors, each sensitive to different wavelengths of light: short (blue), medium (green), and long (red).

opponent processing theory

a theory that suggests color perception is controlled by the activity of opposing neurons in the visual system, specifically red-green and blue-yellow channels.

afterimage

A visual illusion that occurs after staring at a colored image and then looking at a white surface, where the complementary color appears.

depth perception

The ability to perceive the world in three dimensions and judge the distance of objects.

binocular depth cues

Visual cues that require both eyes to perceive depth, such as convergence and retinal disparity.

binocular disparity

A binocular depth cue that arises from the slightly different images received by each eye, allowing for the perception of depth.

monocular depth cues

Visual cues that require only one eye to perceive depth, including size, texture, and perspective.

linear perspective

A monocular depth cue that involves parallel lines converging at a distance, creating the illusion of depth.

outer ear

pinna, auditory/ ear canal. and tympanic membrane

inner ear

cochlea, basilar membrane

ear hair cells

sensory cells in the cochlea that detect sound vibrations and convert them into neural signals.

middle: ossicles

The three small bones in the middle ear, known as the malleus, incus, and stapes, that transmit sound vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the inner ear.

the vestibular sense

The sensory system that provides information about balance, spatial orientation, and the position of the body in relation to gravity, primarily through the inner ear structures.

auditory transduction

the process by which sound waves are converted into electrical signals in the auditory system.

sound localization

The process by which the location of a sound source is determined based on the auditory cues received by the ears, including differences in loudness and timing.

interaural level difference

the difference in sound intensity that reaches each ear, allowing the brain to determine the direction of a sound source.

interaural timing difference

the difference in the time it takes for a sound to reach each ear, which helps in determining the direction of the sound source.

congential deafness

A form of hearing loss that occurs at birth, often due to genetic factors or developmental issues during pregnancy.

conductive hearing loss

a type of hearing loss caused by problems in the outer or middle ear that prevent sound from being conducted to the inner ear.

sensorineural hearing loss

A type of hearing loss resulting from damage to the inner ear or the auditory nerve, often caused by aging, exposure to loud noises, or illness.

gustation

The sense of taste, which allows the detection of flavors through taste buds on the tongue.

4 types of taste receptors

include sweet, salty, sour, and bitter.

olfaction

The sense of smell, which involves the detection of airborne chemical substances by receptors in the nasal cavity.

olfactory receptors

Specialized sensory cells in the nasal cavity that detect odor molecules and send signals to the brain, contributing to the sense of smell.

olfactory bulb

A structure located at the base of the brain that processes information about odors received from the olfactory receptors. It plays a crucial role in the sense of smell.

phermones

Chemical signals that trigger social responses in members of the same species.

olfactory transduction

The process by which olfactory receptors convert odorant molecules into neural signals that can be processed by the brain.

touch

The sensory process that allows us to perceive pressure, temperature, and pain through specialized receptors in the skin and other tissues.

meissners corpuscles

Specialized nerve endings in the skin that are sensitive to light touch and vibrations.

pacinian corpuscles

Specialized nerve endings in the skin that detect deep pressure and vibration.

merkels disks

Specialized nerve endings in the skin that are sensitive to light touch and pressure, playing a key role in tactile perception.

ruffini corpuscles

Sensory receptors located in the skin and joint capsules that respond to skin stretch and sustained pressure.

thermoception

The sensory process that allows individuals to perceive changes in temperature, including warmth and cold.

nociception

The sensory process that encodes and processes painful stimuli, allowing the body to detect and respond to harmful or potentially damaging conditions.

inflammatory pain

A type of pain resulting from inflammation, often associated with tissue damage and conditions such as arthritis or injury. It signals the presence of harmful stimuli and can lead to increased sensitivity in the affected area.

neuropathic pain

a type of pain that arises from damage to the nervous system, often characterized by burning or tingling sensations.

congenital insensitivity to pain

A rare genetic disorder characterized by the inability to feel physical pain, often leading to severe injuries and health complications.

proprioception

the body's ability to sense its position and movement in space, allowing for coordination and balance.

kinesthesia

the sense of body movement and the awareness of the position of body parts in relation to one another.

gestalt

a psychological concept that emphasizes the holistic nature of perception, suggesting that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

figure ground

a perceptual organization where an object (the figure) is distinguished from its background (the ground), allowing for recognition and interpretation of visual stimuli.

proximity

The principle in Gestalt psychology that suggests objects that are close together are perceived as a group.

similarity

A principle of Gestalt psychology that states objects that are similar in appearance are perceived as a group or pattern.

continuity

A principle in Gestalt psychology that suggests elements arranged on a line or curve are perceived as more related than elements not on the line or curve.

closure

The Gestalt principle that suggests individuals perceive incomplete figures as complete by filling in gaps.

implicit bias and perception

Implicit bias affects how we perceive and interpret information, often leading to judgments based on stereotypes rather than objective reality.

relfexes

Automatic responses to stimuli that occur without conscious thought.

instincts

Innate behaviors that are automatically triggered in response to specific stimuli, often vital for survival.

learning

A process through which experiences result in relatively permanent changes in behavior or knowledge.

associative learning

a type of learning in which an organism learns to associate one stimulus with another, often through conditioning.

classical conditioning

a learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.

operant conditioning

a learning process through which the consequences of a behavior either reinforce or punish that behavior, affecting the likelihood of its recurrence.

observational learning

A type of learning that occurs through observing the behaviors of others and the consequences that result from those behaviors.

associative learning

a learning process in which a new response becomes associated with a specific stimulus through conditioning.

unconditioned and conditioned responses

are fundamental concepts in classical conditioning, where an unconditioned response occurs naturally in reaction to an unconditioned stimulus, and a conditioned response is learned through association with a conditioned stimulus.

before conditioning UCS, UCR

An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) naturally triggers an unconditioned response (UCR) without prior learning.

during conditioning NS

is paired with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to elicit a conditioned response (CR).

after conditioning CS, CR

The conditioned stimulus (CS) is a previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), triggers a conditioned response (CR). The CR is the learned response to the CS.

higher order conditioning

A conditioning process where a previously conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with a new neutral stimulus (NS) to create a second conditioned response (CR). This allows for the creation of multiple layers of conditioned responses.

acquisition

The initial stage of learning when a response is established and gradually strengthened through repeated association of a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.

extinction

The process in which the conditioned response (CR) diminishes or disappears when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented without the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) over time.

spontaneous recovery

The reappearance of a conditioned response after a pause, following extinction, indicating that the learned behavior was not completely forgotten.