Chapter 11: Geographies of Agriculture

explain the components of soils and topography

• soil depth, texture, acidity, nutrient composition

• slope can cause problems with erosion and limit use of machinery

• elevation affections temperature: temperature declines 6 degrees C every 1000m

explain the components of climate conditions

• precise moisture/temp requirements; growing season temperature 18-25C

• short growing seasons = low yields as crops don’t mature - threat of frost damage

• water availability: too much/too little/unpredictability damages crop and reduces yields

what are the two options for farmers

1. ensure a (best possible) match between animal and plant requirement and physical envr - develop frost hardy, drought resistant crop varieties and animal breeds

2. create artificial/augmented physical environments - irrigation systems, greenhouses

what technological factors have improved agriculture

advances in pesticides, fungicides and fertilizers improved agricultural productivity

how might governments influence farmer behaviour

• interventions to set prices or provide financial, trade or labour supports

• encourage adoption of new methods or products

what is the profit motive

• producers meet rising demand with more supply

• capitalist model of commercial agriculture

what is canada the global leader in (ag product)

global leader in growing peas, and the demand for pea protein for plant-based meat alternatives is growing rapidly

what is commercial agriculture

land is conventionally assigned according to economic efficiency

• greater profits, more specific agricultural land use can ‘pay’ for land

what is an economic rent ceiling

the maximum that a potential land use can pay for the use of a given parcel of land

give an example of an economic rent ceiling

high international demand for pea protein = greater profits for pulses and legumes than for other crops - more land will go into pea/pulses production

• out-competes other agricultural uses that generate less revenue/have reduced markets

when is land only used for production

land is only used for production if a given land use has an economic rent above zero - marginal lands unprofitable

what is von thunen’s agricultural location theory

normative theory assumptions: model of an idealized agricultural landscape:

• there is only one city (one central market)

• farmers must sell their produce in this central market

• farmers are profit maximizers - economic operator

• agricultural land is of uniform productive capacity

• there is only one mode of transportation

• FOCUS - DISTANCE EFFECTS

what is the crop theory

crop location is affected by perishability and weight as they affect transport cost

what is the intensity theory

the intensity of production decreases with increasing distance from market

• intensity refers to yield per unit area

what was von thunen aware of

he was aware of simplifications

• model exceptions to the assumptions - eg., transport routes quality; multiple centres; land quality

what is domestication

the (first) agricultural revolution

ongoing process of selectively breeding plants and animals for specific characteristics useful to humans

when did domestication begin and where

occurred over thousands of years, starting around 12,000 yrs ago

• artificial selection versus natural selection

diffused from several initial centres

• sw asia, se asia, africa, n america and n china

what are the possible causes of domestication

• favoured animals living in groups (e.g., herds, flocks, packs)

• environment rich in food sources - time and leisure to devote to experimentation

• climate change or population pressures prompted search new food supplies - stability in food access

when did the second agricultural revolution begin

started around 1700, rapid innovations through to mid 19th century with industrializaiton

what is the second agricultural revolution

adoption of new crops and crop rotation systems

• bounty form colonialism - columbian exchange ex: potato

increased mechanization

• greater productivity with fewer farm workers

• e.g., robey traction engine (steam) 1862

rising ability to feed a growing population

what were the institutional changes of the second agricultural revolution

• 19th c. common land enclosures - end of feudal system and peasant farmers

• rise of private property and land rental - larger fields suit new machines

• loss of common grazing land

• rise of wage labour; capitalist motivation in farming to maximize yields

what are the environmental problems of the chemical revolution

• soil and water contamination; human health risk

• nitrous oxide (greenhouse gas)

• soil acidity

what does industrial agriculture depend on now

depends on industrial synthetic nitrogen

what is the chemical revolution

• nitrogen fertilizers

• guano mined industrially; significant international trade starts 1840; 20 mil tons transported from island off peru 1850-70

• atmospheric nitrogen synthesis (haber bosch process) - commercial fertilizer production starts 1912

when did the green revolution begin

1960s/70s agricultural research system

what did the green revolution depend on

high dependency on fertilizers, irrigation, pesticides

what was the green revolution

transfer improved plant and animal varieties to LDCs - high yielding varieties (HYVs) rice and wheat

• increased crop yield, pest resistance, shorter time to maturity (double cropping)

• government subsidies, price guarantees encourage innovation

what were some farmers able to produce during the green revolution

a market surplus which raised income, improved diets for those who had more land/capital

• negative environmental consequences

• social and political implications

how is biotechnology promoted as a source of future gains

tissue culturing, dna sequencing, cross species gene insertion for desired characteristics

what is the potential and controversy of biotechnology

• focus on pesticide resistance and patent control

• concentration ownership

• reduced biodiversity

• food safety concerns (GMOs; agro-chemical exposure)

what is agriculture affected by

• regulations with global impact (e.g., trade agreements such as cusma, tpp, gatt; tariffs)

• actions of transnational corporations (tncs)

• TNCs control processing, production and marketing networks

• concentration of commodity control among few corporations

give an example of global agriculture - big cocoa

• 70%+ of cocoa beans come from 4 west african countries: ghana, cote d’ivoire, nigeria, cameroon

• dominated few corporations all based in MDCs:

• e.g., mars inc (usa); ferrero (italy); mondelez international (usa); meiji co. ltd. (japan)

explain the other sections of global agriculture

products and production technology

• computerization e.g., feeding systems, ‘smart’ agro chemical applications

movement of capital from one level of production to another

• investment in food processing and marketing/distribution

spatial and labour re-organization

• fewer farm operators, dependence on seasonal (migrant) labour

• larger, corporation owned/contracted farm operations

what sectors replaced agriculture as the most important in developed countries

industrial and service activities replaced agriculture as the dominant sectors in developed economies

how has the percentage of the labour force in agriculture changed over time

it varies spatially and temporally, but shows a long term decline with the rest of intensive, industrial agriculture

• <50% in north america in 1930s

• remains 75%+ many central central african countries

what motivates industrial agriculture

profit motive and profit maximizing technologies

what are the key characteristics of industrial agriculture

intensification, specialization, and spatial concentration

who makes most agricultural decisions in industrial agriculture

not the individual farmer but corporate and government interests heavily shape agriculture activities and outputs

what role do exports play in industrial agriculture

exports are increasingly important to regional and national agriculture economic sectors

explain the rural depopulation in developed countries like canada

• steady decline in number of ‘farm operators’ in canada

• 2021 avg farmer age; 56

• 2021 1.34% of canadian labour force

• number of farm operations declined from 480,900 in 1961

• significant impacts on rural and small town life

what is horizontal integration

business grows by acquiring similar companies in their industry in the same point of the supply chain

• very large corporations dominate entire sectors

• e.g., 40 years of mergers and acquisitions now few core players in global confectionary industry; mars, mondelez, hershey, nestle, ferrero

• more automation, fewer workers

vertical integration

business expands by acquiring companies operate before and after them in the supply chain

• commodity networks link production, distribution and consumption

• about control: product quality, prices, supply chain

• e.g., ferrero in 2014 bought hazelnut processing facilities in turkey as key part of nutella supply chain

what is a major concern about agribusiness concentrated in LDCs

it can function as a form of economic colonialism, where foreign corporations control agricultural production

how does agribusiness affect agricultural landscapes in LDCs

it creates landscapes disconnected from local markets and occupies prime agricultural land

who benefits most from agribusiness operations in LDCs

foreign investors and local elites, rather than the majority of the population

explain the efforts of more ethical production

fair trade chocolate

• e.g., canadian brand camino owned by la siembra co-operative (1999)

• 1st registered importer in n. america of fair trade certified cocoa - 25 producer co-ops, 14 countries, 47,500+ family farmers