Principles of Psychological Research Exam 1

Define Empiricism

To answer psychological questions with direct, formal observations, and to communicate with others about what they have learned.

To use the senses, or instruments that help the senses, as the basis for conclusions.

What are the four cycles of research?

Theory-data, Basic-Applied, Peer-Review, Journal-Journalism

Theory-Data Cycle

Scientists collect data to test, update, or change their theories.

Basic-Applied Research

Basic research is conducted, which is then tested to see where it can be applied in real world scenarios through translational research, and finally applied research tests specific applications in the real world.

Peer-Review

Scientists send their work to a journal, and the journal editor sends it to three or four experts on the subject. The experts tell the editor the design’s merits and flaws, and then decides whether or not the work should be published.

Journal-Journalism

A journalist becomes interested in a particular study, and then turns it into a news story by summarizing and simplifying it.

Why is it important to be a consumer of research?

To be able to evaluate research found in public articles or used for your career and ask the right questions about it. You know how to bypass intuitive thinking.

Why is it important to be a producer of research?

Needed for grad school, to write good research papers, and to pursue a career that is research related.

Intuitive thinker vs. scientific thinker

Intuitive thinking goes off of a gut feeling or what “makes sense,” scientific thinking is based on empiricism and real evidence.

Define confound

Confused; alternative explanations for an outcome.

What are the four types of biases?

Good story bias, blind spot bias, availability bias, and confirmation bias.

Good story bias

Accepting a conclusion just because it makes sense or feels natural.

Blind spot bias

The belief that we are unlikely to fall for different types of biases in comparison to other people.

Availability bias

Things that pop up easily in our mind tend to guide our thinking.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to only look at information that agrees with what we already believe.

Define probablistic

Research’s findings are not meant to explain all of the cases all of the time. They are rather meant to explain a certain proportion.

What sources are peer reviewed?

Empirical studies, Meta-Analysis, Systematic Review

Empirical study

Report the results of an empirical research study for the first time. Contains info about the method, tests, and results.

Meta-analysis

A quantitative technique that combines the results of many studies and gives an effect size of the relationship.

Systematic review

A review of a clearly formulated question that uses methods to identify, select, and use relevant research to answer it.

Book chapter

In an edited book on a common topic, usually a summarization of previous research with an explanation of the story behind it.

Define operational definitions of variables

To turn a concept of interest into a measurable variable.

Type I Error

False positive- thinking there is a correlation when there isn’t

Type II Error

False negative- thinking there isn’t a correlation when there is

Frequency claim

Describes the particular rate or degree of a certain variable. Claiming how frequent or common something is.

Association claim

Argues that one level of a variable is likely to be associated with a particular level of another variable.

Causal claim

Arguing that one variable is responsible for changing the other.

Four different types of validity

External validity, internal validity, construct validity, statistical validity.

External Validity

The extent to which the results of a study generalize to a larger population.

Internal validity

In a relationship between variables A and B, the extent to which A is responsible for changes in B rather than another variable C.

Construct validity

How well the variables in a study are measured and manipulated. The extent to which the operational variables in the study are a good representation of the conceptual variables.

Statistical validity

The extent to which data supports the conclusions. Asking the strength of the relationship and the statistical significance.

What type of validity is important for causal claims?

Internal validity

What claim is best to test with correlational studies?

Association claims

What claim is best to test with observational studies?

Frequency claims

What claim is best to test with experimental studies?

Causal claims

What are the three requirements to establish causality?

Temporal precedence, covariation, and lack of confounding variables.

Temporal precedence

To make sure that variable A really did come before variable B.

Covariation

The extent to which two variables are observed to go together; they must be associated.

Lack of confounding variables

Eliminating alternative explanations for the outcome of the study.

Harlow’s study

Tested cupboard vs contact comfort theories, gave baby monkeys a wire mother with food and a comfy mother with no food; they spent more time on the comfy mother.

Beyond scared straight

TV show about the “Scared Straight’ program where troubled teenagers would visit prisons where prisoners would talk about their bad experiences there. Meant to reduce crime in adolescents but ended up increasing rates instead. Good example of good-story bias.

“How biased are you” poll

U.S. airport travelers were asked if the average American was more biased than they were and the vast majority said yes. Goo example of bias blind spot.

Wakefield autism studies

Only 12 children were studied, there was no control group, and lead to people worldwide not giving their children the MMR vaccine. Retracted from journal and authors admitted fraud.

OSF- what is preregistration?

When you specify your research plan in advance of a study and submit it to a registry.

SONA system-research participation for class credits

College students can participate in SONA for extra credit, which provides participants for researchers at school. The downside is a lack of external validity.

Falsifiability

A theory must lead to a hypothesis that when tested, can prove to be false.

Basic Research

Meant to enhance the general body of knowledge rather than addressing a specific problem.

Applied research

Done with a practical problem in mind, within a specific real-world context.

Translational research

The use of lessons from basic research to develop and test applications to more specific scenarios.

Present/Present bias

We fail to think about what we cannot see.

Positive association

High goes with high, and low goes with low.

Negative association

High goes with low, and low goes with high.

Constructs

Abstract variables of interest, must be defined conceptually, usually described within theory.