Chapter 9: Language and Thought

cognitive processes

involve thinking, language, forming categories, problem solving, and reasoning

cognition

activities that underlie all forms of thought

thinking

internal, goal-directed activity involving internal manipulation of knowledge and ideas

thinking uses

solving problems, reasoning, making decisions, understanding, and communicating with others

language influencing cognition

language influences how we think

linguistic relativity hypothesis

language shapes our perceptions of reality and influences our thoughts

grammar

rules that enable the communicator to combine symbols and create meaning, must have this to be considered a true language

grammar aspects

phonology, syntax, semantics

phonology

the rules for combining sounds to make words

syntax

the rules for combining words to make sentences

semantics

rules used to communicate meaning

phonemes

the base of the spoken language hierarchy, the smallest significant sound units in speech

morphemes

next up in the hierarchy, smallest units of language that carry meaning, like small words or prefixes/suffixes

surface structure

outward, visible form of a sentence

deep structure

underlying meaning and grammatical relationships of a sentence

language comprehension

understanding what another person is trying to communicate, the flip side of language production, relies on common knowledge

pragmatics

how practical knowledge can be used both to comprehend the intentions of speakers and to produce an effective response

learning language - infancy

many language researchers think babies are born prepared to use language for communication, most babies cry in similar ways and move quickly through vocalization milestones

babys’ communication

they can comprehend language much faster than they can produce it

telegraphic speech

combining two words into simple sentences, reflects rudimentary knowledge of syntax/order of words, children show this around age two

preschool years

increased language complexity, shows overgeneralization

overgeneralization

applying grammar rules where they don’t apply

category

class of objects that most people agree belong together

categories...

allow us to infer invisible properties about objects, once something is adequately categorized, predictions can be made about the future

defining features

the set of features necessary to make objects acceptable members of a category

natural categories

most have fuzzy boundaries

rosch and mervis

claim that category members have family resemblance

family resemblance

members of the same category will share certain core features, but it isn’t necessary for each member to have them all

prototype

the best or most representative member of a category

determining category of a new object

compare to a prototype vs compare to all individual exemplars

hierarchal structure

we utilize basic level categories to describe objects in our world, usually resides at an intermediate level

basic level categories

the level in a category hierarchy that provides the most useful and predictive information

well defined problem

problem with a well-stated goal, a clear starting poing, and a relatively easy way to tell when a solution has been obtained

ill defined problem

problem that has no well-stated goal, no clear starting point, and no mechanism for evaluating progress

problem representation

sorting and understanding information and how to use it, must engage in this to solve a problem

functional fixedness

the tendency to see objects and their functions in certain fixed and typical ways

algorithms

step-by-step rules or procedures that guarantee a problem solution if applied correctly

algorithm drawbacks

works for only certain kinds of well-defined problems, long calculation times for many possible outcomes

heuristics

the rule of thumb we use to solve problems, can usually be applied quickly, but do not guarantee that a solution will be found

means-end analysis

involves devising actions that reduce the distance between the current starting point and the desired end, breaking down the problem into a series of more manageable subgoals

searching for analogies

involves trying to find a connection between the current problem and some previous problem you have solved successfully

mental sets

the tendency to continue to use a belief system and problem solving strategy that worked in the past

framing

the way alternatives are presented, can have a dramatic influence on decision making

belief persistence

we tend to cling to our initial beliefs even when evidence suggests our belief may be wrong

representative heuristic

we estimate the probability of an event based on how similar it is to a known situation

conjunction error

assuming multiple things are more likely to co-occur than a single thing on its own

gambler’s fallacy

when someone believes that the probability of an event is lower or higher after a series of outcomes that it would be for a single outcome

availability heuristic

using information that comes to mind most easily to make judgements

anchoring

influenced judgement by initial estimates given