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Learning
Acquisition of new knowledge or skills from experience
Habituation
Gradual reduction in responding due to repeated exposure to a stimulus
Sensitization
Increased response to a stimulus due to prior exposure
What is classical conditioning?
Learning through association of stimuli.
What is an unconditioned stimulus (US)?
Something that reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction in an organism.
What is an unconditioned response (UR)?
Reflexive reaction that is reliably produced by an unconditioned stimulus.
What is a conditioned stimulus (CS)?
Stimulus that is initially neutral and produces a reliable response in an organism.
What is a conditioned response (CR)?
Reaction that resembles an unconditioned response but is produced by a conditioned stimulus.
What is delay conditioning?
Conditioning with overlap between CS and US.
What is trace conditioning?
Conditioning with CS presented and terminated before US.
What is acquisition?
Phase of classical conditioning when the CS and the US are presented together.
What is extinction?
Gradual elimination of a learned response that occurs when the US is no longer presented.
What is second-order conditioning?
Conditioning where the CS is paired with a stimulus that became associated with the US in an earlier procedure.
What is spontaneous recovery?
Tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period.
What is generalization?
Observing CR with slightly different CS
What is discrimination?
Distinguishing between similar stimuli
Conditioned Emotion
An emotional response that is learned through conditioning.
Watson and Rayner
Researchers who conditioned Little Albert to fear a white rat.
Little Albert
A 9-month-old baby who was conditioned to fear a white rat.
Stimulus Generalization
The tendency to respond to similar stimuli in the same way.
What is the Rescorla-Wagner model?
A model that suggests classical conditioning occurs with expectation.
What is the role of the cerebellum in eyeblink conditioning?
Implicated in delay and trace conditioning.
What is the role of the hippocampus in eyeblink conditioning?
Implicated in trace conditioning, but not as much in delay conditioning.
What is the role of the amygdala in classical conditioning?
Responsible for fear conditioning.
What are the types of responses involved in classical conditioning?
Behavioral and physiological (autonomic nervous system) responses.
What are adaptive behaviors?
Behaviors that help us survive.
Give examples of adaptive behaviors.
Phobias, Taste Aversions.
How are taste aversions learned?
Rapidly and in few trials, over long conditioning periods, due to perceptual qualities (smell or taste).
When are taste aversions more likely to occur?
With novel foods.
What is operant conditioning?
Type of learning based on consequences of behavior.
Who is Edward Thorndike?
Psychologist who focused on instrumental behaviors.
What is the Law of Effect?
Behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are repeated.
What is operant behavior?
Behavior that impacts the environment.
What is an operant chamber or Skinner Box?
A device used to study operant behavior.
What is shaping?
Learning through reinforcement of successive steps.
Define superstitious behavior.
Repeating rare behaviors accidentally reinforced, leading to mistaken beliefs.
What is reinforcement?
Any stimulus or event that increases behavior likelihood.
What is positive reinforcement?
Adding a stimulus to increase behavior likelihood.
What is negative reinforcement?
Removing a stimulus to increase behavior likelihood.
What is punishment?
Any stimulus or event that decreases behavior likelihood.
What is positive punishment?
Adding a stimulus to decrease behavior likelihood.
What is negative punishment?
Removing a stimulus to decrease behavior likelihood.
What increases the likelihood of behavior?
Positive reinforcement
What decreases the likelihood of behavior?
Positive punishment
What is it called when a stimulus is removed to increase behavior?
Negative reinforcement
What is it called when a stimulus is removed to decrease behavior?
Negative punishment
What are primary reinforcers?
Satisfy biological needs (e.g. food, comfort, shelter, warmth).
What are secondary reinforcers?
Associated with primary reinforcers through classical conditioning (e.g. verbal approval, trophies, money).
What is immediate reinforcement?
Reinforcement that is given immediately after a behavior.
What is delayed reinforcement?
Reinforcement that is given after a certain period of time has passed.
What happens to the effectiveness of reinforcers over time?
Reinforcers lose effectiveness as time passes.
What is the effect of delaying reinforcement?
Delaying reinforcement renders it almost to completely ineffective.
What is discrimination in operant conditioning?
Discriminative stimulus: a stimulus that indicates that a response will be reinforced
How does discrimination affect learning?
Same response in a different context likely produces a different outcome
What is generalization in operant conditioning?
A range of stimuli with similar characteristics may produce a similar response
What is the importance of context in learning?
Learning takes place in contexts, not in the free range of any plausible situation
What is extinction in classical conditioning?
When the conditioned stimulus is delivered without the unconditioned stimulus.
What is extinction in operant conditioning?
Depends on how often reinforcement is received.
What is extinction in classical conditioning?
When the conditioned stimulus is delivered without the unconditioned stimulus.
What is extinction in operant conditioning?
Depends on how often reinforcement is received.
What is continuous reinforcement?
Reinforcer delivered every response.
What is intermittent reinforcement?
Only some responses followed by reinforcement.
What is the effect of intermittent reinforcement?
Higher rates of responding, resistance to extinction.
What is a fixed-interval schedule?
Reinforcements presented at fixed time periods.
What is a variable-interval schedule?
Reinforcement based on average time since last reinforcement.
What is a fixed-ratio schedule?
Reinforcement after specific number of responses.
What is a variable-ratio schedule?
Reinforcement based on average number of responses.
What did Edward Tolman see operant conditioning as?
A means-ends relationship.
What is latent learning?
Learning that is not immediately shown in behavior.
What is a cognitive map?
A mental representation of the environment's physical features.
What are the evolutionary elements of operant conditioning?
Foraging animals exploring their environment, even non-reinforcing places, and species being biologically predisposed to learn certain things more readily.
What is an example of behaviors in a T Maze?
Behaviors exhibited by animals navigating through a T-shaped maze.
What are positive and negative reinforcers in operant conditioning?
Positive reinforcers are stimuli that increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated, while negative reinforcers are stimuli that increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated by removing an aversive stimulus.
What is shaping in operant conditioning?
Shaping is the process of gradually teaching and reinforcing behaviors that are closer and closer to the desired behavior.
How can operant conditioning be used to shape child behaviors?
Operant conditioning can be used to shape child behaviors by reinforcing desired behaviors and gradually shaping them towards the desired behavior.
How can operant conditioning be applied to classroom behaviors?
Operant conditioning can be applied to classroom behaviors by using positive reinforcement to encourage desired behaviors and negative reinforcement to discourage undesired behaviors.
