differing views & tensions

theory behind liberal nationalism

• Founded upon the idea of popular sovereignty - the nation-state is a construct of and gains its legitimacy from the people

  • The nation is not an artificial construct created by politicians, it is a natural phenomenon developed over time

• Liberal nationalism has come to define the global order; a world divided into nation-states, each with district identities

• Territorial boundaries are significant for the nation - the boundaries contain the nation and set the parameters for politics and government

overview of liberal nationalism ideologies

• Liberal nationalism is unlike chauvinistic and regressive nationalism - it does not believe in national superiority, and it believes all nations are equal and have the right to self-determination

• Liberal nationalism is about stability within and between nations

• Supranationalism (EU) is more than a means of cooperation for nation-states but a brake on the expansionist tendencies of rogue states

liberal nationalism & empire

• Imperialism and Empire are the antithesis of liberal nationalism

• The oppression of another nation or state is not compatible with the belief in self-determination - moreover, imperialism and Empire can lead to instability in the world as nations seek self-determination

key ideas in conservative nationalism

• Attachment to the nation and its values provides social cohesion and public order

• Conservative nationalism draws heavily upon conservative values of social cohesion, patriotism and public order

• Tradition looms large in conservative nationalism; the traditional institutions of the nation are revered, celebrated and protected

conservative nationalism - reagan & thatcher

• The neo-liberalism of the US and UK governments relied heavily on a conservative form of nationalism

  • Reagan presented an idyllic vision of America based upon traditional institutions like religion and marriage with an assertive foreign policy

• Thatcher used the nation and national symbols to her advantage following victory in the Falklands War in 1982

• The image of British soldiers returning home under the Union Flag following victory in the Falklands galvanised the nation

conservative nationalism today

• Conservative nationalism may seek a return to a ‘golden age’ of the past

  • This was reflected in the Vote Leave campaign, which argued Brexit would restore UK sovereignty outside EU rules

• Conservative nationalism claims Parliament and courts would regain full authority

• Euroscepticism and reduced immigration are key themes, as EU influence and cultural change are seen as threats to traditional institutions and ways of life

colonialism overview

• Colonialism is the domination of one nation by another

• The dominant nation will assert its superiority over the colonised nation

• As well as the imposition of values, etc. it will also impose symbols to assert its dominance - this can be seen with the way that Britain used the union flag

key ideas of post-colonial nationalism

• Nationalism, and a sense of nationhood, was forged by the forced occupation of land - liberation from occupation became the core focus on anti-colonialism nationalism

• The desire for self-determination in order to improve social and economic conditions was a key concern of the anti-colonial nationalists

• The de-colonisation of much of Asia and Africa occurred following WWII

post-colonial nationalism outcomes

• Revolution became a key theme in post-colonial nations as they sought to chart their own social, political, and economic course following years of oppression - anti-Western sentiment was often a key theme in revolutions

• But, despite the desire for self-determination, many nations ended up under authoritarian regimes following independence - e.g. Africa became mired in conflict as many nations fell to strongmen, military leaders, and one-party states

• Other nations fell to communism, following independence; e.g. Vietnam and Cambodia

expansionist nationalism & superiority

• Expansionist nationalism is linked to chauvinism

• While expansionist nationalists believe in superiority, they also have an illogical fear of minorities

• Some nations have particular characteristics, such as ethnicity, which make them superior to other nations - this gives such nations the basis to ‘civilise’ such people with their language, culture, and religion

• Expansionist nationalism is the antithesis of liberal nationalism - it doesn’t believe in the equality of nations or the right to self-determination

examples of expansionist nationalism

• Expansionist nationalism is typified by the Empire building of the European powers - it began with Britain in the 17th century and continued up to the expansionist policies of the fascist regimes in Nazi Germany and Italy, which led to WWII

• In Nazi Germany, its expansionist policies and sense of cultural and ethnic superiority resulted in its effort to construct an Aryan master-race

• The fate of Jewish people shows how expansionist nationalists may scapegoat others

expansionist nationalism today

• In the modern era, North Korea demonstrates the traits of an expansionist nationalist nation - its leader elicits intense loyalty from citizens - it has an illogical fear of outsiders and other nations; even south Korea is seen as an enemy nation

progressive nationalism overview

• Progressives have traditionally rejected nationalism because of the damage done by the nationalist movements of the 1930s and 1940s

• Nationalism may be progressive when it seeks to move the nation beyond situations like colonialism and towards self-determination and independence

• Progressive nationalism is often seen as the opposite of chauvinistic nationalism

• In contemporary politics, progressive nationalism seeks to blend the national solidarity associated with chauvinistic nationalism with liberal ideas of equal citizenship, tolerance and social justice

examples of progressive nationalism

• The New Labour government of Blair demonstrated elements of progressive nationalism - while it strongly advocated the benefits of immigration and multiculturalism, it sought to promote national solidarity through projects like the Millennium dome

• The Blair government also sought to situate nationalistic values within the context of internationalism - Britain’s national interests and identity, Blair argued, were strengthened through the full participation in international alliances, like the EU

regressive nationalism overview

• Nationalism may be regressive when it seeks to preserve or re-establish the sense of national pride of a previous age

• Regressive nationalism may engage in the practice of scapegoatings and/or blame-shifting - the ills of the nation are caused by the unfair practices of others or the unfair structures which undermine the nation’s well-being and future prosperity

examples of regressive nationalism

• The UK’s relationship with the EU was often characterised by regressive nationalism as proponents of leaving the bloc looked back to a prior time when the country was ‘independent’

• Trump’s MAGA slogan epitomised regressive nationalism - it was based on a message on anti-internationalism and anti-globalisation

• Trump promised to return the country to an economic golden age through the return of jobs and industries from abroad

inclusive nationalism overview

• Individuals are encouraged to accept the values of the nation

• Membership of the nation is civic in character and subscribes to traditional liberal values of tolerance and inclusivity and the integrity of state political institutions

• Cultural, ethnic, linguistic, and religious differences do not affect membership of the nation so long as loyalty is given and its basic values are accepted

• The values and core characteristics of the nation may change over time as many Western nations have embraced a multicultural character

strains in inclusive nationalism

• With the threat of Islamic terrorism in the early 2000s and the rise of populism in the mid-2010s, inclusive nationalism has been placed under strain

• Populist politicians, like Nigel Farage and Donald Trump, have been criticised for their rhetoric regarding immigration and a particular focus on visible minorities

• Distinct cultural markers, like the burqa, have been outlawed in a number of European countries and traditional political parties have suffered as new populist parties attract voters with less inclusive policies on immigration

exclusive nationalism overview

• Exclusive nationalism is often favoured by those of the far political right - it is insular and wary of outsiders

• Homogeneity is the key feature of an exclusive nation - to be a member of the nation, one must meet one or all of the criteria

• Exclusive nationalism can lead to conflict within nation-states as minorities are persecuted in order to protect the character of the nation

examples of exclusive nationalism

• A group, for example, may speak the language but do not share the majority ethnicity so are persecuted or sidelined - the Uighur Muslims of China are a persecuted people within China because they do not share the nation’s core characteristics

• Exclusive nationalism is authoritarian and expects a degree of racial cohesion - e.g. the British National Party rejected the concept of duality in identity, e.g. British Muslims