Nutrition Unit 4 Exam

embryo

In humans, the developing offspring in utero from about the beginning of the third week to the end of the eighth week after conception.

infertility

inability of a couple to conceive after 1 year of unprotected intercourse.

amenorrhea

absence of menstrual periods in a female of reproductive age

polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)

a condition of hormonal imbalance (e.g., elevated testosterone and insulin) in a female that can lead to infertility, weight gain in the abdominal region, excessive growth of body hair, acne.

spontaneous abortion

cessation of pregnancy and expulsion of the embryo or nonviable fetus prior to 20 weeks gestation. This is the result of natural causes, such as a genetic defect or developmental problem; also called miscarriage.

fetus

the developing organism from about the beginning of the ninth week after conception until birth

trimesters

Three 13- to 14-week periods into which the normal pregnancy (on average, 40 weeks) is divided somewhat arbitrarily for purposes of discussion and analysis. Development of the offspring, however, is continuous throughout pregnancy, with no specific physiological markers demarcating the transition from one trimester to the next.

ovum

the egg cell from which a fetus eventually develops if the egg is fertilized by a sperm cell.

placenta

An organ that forms within the uterus during pregnancy. Through this organ, oxygen and nutrients from the mother’s blood are transferred to the fetus, and fetal wastes are removed. The placenta also releases hormones that maintain the state of pregnancy.

zygote

the fertilized ovum; the cell resulting from the union of an egg cell (ovum) and sperm until it divides.

gestation

the period of intrauterine development of offspring, from conception to birth; in humans, normal gestation is 38 to 42 weeks.

lactation

the period of milk secretion following pregnancy; typically called breastfeeding.

preterm

referring to an infant born before 37 weeks of gestation; also referred to as premature.

fetal origins hypothesis

a theory that links nutritional and other environmental factors during gestation to the future health of the offspring

low birth weight

referring to any infant weighing less than 2.5 kilograms (5.5 pounds) at birth; most commonly results from preterm birth

term

Referring to an infant born after a gestational period of 37 weeks up to 42 weeks, counting from the date of the mother’s last menstrual period. The American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology further subdivides term pregnancy into early term (37 weeks up to 39 weeks), full term (39 weeks up to 41 weeks), and late term (41 weeks up to 42 weeks).

small for gestational age

referring to infants who weigh less than the expected weight for their length of gestation. This corresponds to less than 2.5 kilograms (5.5 pounds) in a full-term newborn.

neural tube defects

A defect in the formation of the neural tube occurring during early fetal development. This type of defect results in various nervous system disorders, such as spina bifida. Folate deficiency in the pregnant woman increases the risk that the fetus will develop this disorder.

fetal macrosomia

a condition in which an infant grows excessively large in utero, usually as a consequence of maternal hyperglycemia.

amniotic fluid

The water-based fluid that surrounds the developing fetus within the amniotic sac during gestation. It cushions the developing fetus, allows for fetal movement, maintains the fetal temperature, and facilitates the development of the lungs and digestive system.

pica

a disorder characterized by eating nonfood items, such as dirt, laundry starch, or clay.

physiological anemia

the normal decrease in red blood cell concentration in the blood due to increased blood volume during pregnancy; also called hemodilution.

gestational diabetes

A high blood glucose concentration that develops during pregnancy and returns to normal after birth; one cause is the placental production of hormones that antagonize the regulation of blood glucose by insulin.

gestational hypertension

Blood pressure of 140/90 mmHg or higher that is first diagnosed after 20 weeks of gestation. This may evolve into preeclampsia or eclampsia.

preeclampsia

a form of gestational hypertension characterized by signs of organ dysfunction, such as liver or kidney damage and/or blood clotting abnormalities.

eclampsia

a severe form of gestational hypertension accompanies by signs of organ dysfunction and seizures; formerly called toxemia.

lactation consultant

Health care professional (often a registered nurse or RDN) with special training to provide education and support for mothers who are breastfeeding and their infants.

alveoli

small, saclike structures. milk is produced in the alveoli of the breast.

lobule

a cluster of alveoli in the human breast

lobe

a group of several lobules within the human breast; also called a mammary gland

prolactin

a hormone secreted by the pituitary gland that stimulates the synthesis of milk in the breast

let-down reflex

a reflex stimulated by infant suckling that causes the release of milk from milk ducts; also called milk ejection reflex

oxytocin

a hormone secreted by the pituitary gland. it causes contraction of the muscle-like cells surrounding the ducts of the breasts and the smooth muscle of the uterus

colostrum

the first fluid secreted by the breast during late pregnancy and the first few days after birth. this thick fluid is rich in immune factors and protein.

human milk oligosaccharides

small, indigestible carbohydrates made in the human breast from lactose and other simple sugars

celiac disease

an autoimmune disorder that affects the small intestine, triggered by ingestion of gluten, leading to inflammation and malabsorption of nutrients.

atopic diseases

a condition involving inappropriate immune response to environmental allergens; examples include asthma, eczema, and seasonal allergies.

galactosemia

inborn error of metabolism in which the enzyme that converts galactose into glucose is missing or deficient

spina bifida

a neural tube defect that occurs when the spine does not close properly during fetal development, often resulting in varying degrees of disability.

anencephaly

a severe neural tube defect characterized by incomplete development of the brain and skull, typically resulting in stillbirth or early infant death.

teratogens

A compound (natural or synthetic) that may cause or increase the risk of a birth defect. Exposure to a teratogen does not always lead to a birth defect; its effects on the fetus depend on the dose, timing, and duration of exposure. Examples: alcohol, some drugs, some industrial or household chemicals, certain infections, and extreme heat.

fetal alcohol spectrum disorders

A group of irreversible physical and mental abnormalities in the infant that result from the mother’s consumption of alcohol during pregnancy.

fetal alcohol syndrome

Severe form of FASD that involves abnormal facial features and problems with development of the nervous system and overall growth as a result of maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy.

alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorders

One or more abnormalities of the central nervous system (e.g., small head size, impaired motor skills, hearing loss, or poor hand–eye coordination) related to confirmed alcohol exposure during gestation.

alcohol related birth defects

One or more birth defects (e.g., malformations of the heart, bones, kidneys, eyes, or ears) related to confirmed alcohol exposure during gestation.

growth charts

Charts used by health professionals to compare the growth of an individual child to normal patterns of growth in weight, stature, and head circumference over time.

percentile

With reference to a dataset, the value below which a given percentage of observations fall. For example, a male at the 75th percentile for BMI-for-age has a BMI higher than 74% of other males his age and lower than 25% of other males his age.

z-score

A statistical comparison of one measurement to the mean of all measurements. For example, in assessment of child growth, a z score of −1 to −1.9 indicates mild pediatric malnutrition, −2 to −2.9 indicates moderate pediatric malnutrition, and −3 or greater indicates severe pediatric malnutrition.

pediatric malnutrition

An imbalance between nutrient requirements and nutrient intake that results in cumulative deficits of energy, protein, or micronutrients and may negatively impact growth, development, and other physical and mental health outcomes; also called pediatric undernutrition.

hydrolyzed protein formula

Infant formula in which the proteins have been broken down into smaller peptides and amino acids to improve digestibility and reduce exposure to potential food allergens; sometimes called predigested or hypoallergenic infant formula.

early childhood caries

Tooth decay that results from formula or juice (and even human milk) bathing the teeth as the child sleeps with a bottle in the mouth. The upper teeth are mostly affected as the lower teeth are protected by the tongue; formerly called nursing bottle syndrome or baby bottle tooth decay.

responsive feeding

A healthy feeding relationship between the caregiver and the child in which the caregiver pays attention to and respects the child’s hunger and satiety.

baby-led introduction to solid foods

A method of introducing developmentally appropriate complementary foods that allows the infant to have greater control over self-feeding; also called baby-led weaning.

weaning

the gradual process of switching from breast milk or infant formula to other sources of nutrition for the infant

food jags

A period of time (usually a few days or weeks) during which a person will eat only a limited variety of foods.

body dissatisfaction

Negative thoughts or attitudes about one’s own body that may arise from a perceived gap between one’s own physical appearance and one’s ideal of attractiveness.

disordered eating

Mild and short-term changes in eating patterns that occur in relation to a stressful event, an illness, or a desire to modify one’s dietary pattern for a variety of health and personal appearance reasons.

neophobia

fear of new things, such as new food

avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID)

Eating disorder characterized by failure to meet energy or nutrient needs, resulting in significant weight loss, nutritional deficiencies, or dependence on tube or intravenous feeding; the eating disturbance is not explained by lack of available food, a medical problem, or another eating disorder.

fecal impaction

The presence of a mass of hard, dry feces that remains in the rectum as a result of chronic constipation.

food intolerance

A negative reaction to a food or its components that does not involve the immune system, often causing digestive issues or discomfort.

aging

Time-dependent physical and physiological changes in body structure and function that occur normally and progressively throughout adulthood as humans mature and become older.

reserve capacity

The extent to which an organ can preserve essentially normal function despite decreasing cell number or cell activity.

compression of morbidity

A concept in public health that refers to the reduction of time an individual spends suffering from chronic illness or disability, aiming to increase the healthy years of life.

life span

The maximum length of time that an organism is expected to live, determined by genetic and environmental factors.

life expectancy

the average length of time for a given group of people born in a specific year

sarcopenia

A condition characterized by the loss of muscle mass and strength due to aging, leading to decreased physical performance and increased risk of falls.

sarcopenic obesity

A condition where excess body fat is accompanied by loss of muscle mass, often seen in older adults, increasing health risks.

osteoarthritis

A degenerative joint disease characterized by the breakdown of cartilage in the joints, leading to pain, stiffness, and decreased mobility.

rheumatoid arthritis

An autoimmune disorder that primarily affects the joints, causing painful inflammation, swelling, and eventually joint damage.

gout

A form of inflammatory arthritis characterized by sudden and severe episodes of pain, redness, and swelling in the joints, often due to high levels of uric acid in the blood.

polypharmacy

The concurrent use of multiple medications by a patient, often to manage several health conditions, which can increase the risk of adverse drug interactions and complicate treatment.

hospice care

a program offering care that emphasizes comfort and dignity at the end of life

dopamine

a neurotransmitter involved in memory, concentration, movement, and mood

norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter from nerve endings and a hormone from the adrenal gland. It is released in times of stress and is involved in hunger regulation, blood glucose regulation, and other body processes.

serotonin

A neurotransmitter that helps regulate mood, sleep, and appetite

multiple sclerosis

A chronic disease that affects the central nervous system, characterized by the degeneration of the protective myelin sheath covering nerve fibers, leading to various neurological symptoms.