Mod 31 terms

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

Alzhemier’s disease

difficulty remembering new info and processing info and progresses into an inability to do everyday tasks (shrinks brain)

recall

retrieving info that is not currently in your conscious awareness but that was learned at an earlier time (ex: fill-in-the-blank)

recognition

identifying items previously learned (ex: multiple-choice)

relearning

learning something more quickly when you learn it a second or later time (ex: study for final exam)

Later in life its easier to recognize information rather than

recall information

response speed =

memory strength

Hermann Ebbinghaus

relearning faster: shown using nonsense syllables

overlearning

increases retention

Information-processing model

likens human memory to computer operations

To remember, we must:

1. get info into brain, a process called encoding

2. retain that info, a process called storage

3. later get info back out, a process called retrieval

Encoding

the process of getting info into the memory system (ex: extracting meaning)

storage

the process of retaining encoded info over time

retrieval

the process of getting info out of memory storage

parallel processing

processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously (natural mode of info processing for many functions)

connectionism

views memories as products of interconnected neural networks

• specific memories arise from particular activation patterns

Richard Atkinson and Ricard Shiffrin’s model:

• how we process explicit memories

• memory forming process

  1. record to-be-remembered info as a sensory memory

  2. process info into short-term memory, where we encode it through rehearsal

  3. info moves into long-term memory for later retrieval

     • has been updated and now includes working memory and automatic processing

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory info in the memory system, info not transferred is lost

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly (such as digits of a phone number while calling) before the information is stored or forgotten

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

• includes: knowledge, skills, and experiences

short-term memory jobs

• where brain actively processes info

• makes sense of new input

• links new input with long-term memories

• processes already stored info

working memory

adds conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual information, and information retrieved from long-term memory

a newer understanding of short term memory that

Atkinson and Shiffrin Theory

Sensory memory, short-term memory, and long term memory

How much capacity does the short term memory have?

7 ± 2

Baddeley’s model

Working memory: A central executive focuses our attention and pulls information from long-term memory to help make sense of new information, the model includes visual and auditory rehearsal of new information.

explicit memories (declarative memory)

retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously, know and “declare”

effortful processing

encoding (explicit memories) that requires attention and conscious effort

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental info, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned info, such as word meanings (produces implicit memories)

implicit (nondeclarative) memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

• includes procedural memory classically, conditioned association

Two-track mind helps us encode, retain, and retrieve info through

both effortful and automatic tracks

• one tucks away routine details

• one focuses on conscious, effortful processing

• reinforces parallel processing

Automatically process info through

-space: visualize location of info (place on page)

-time: retrace time to specific events

-frequency: keep track of how many times things happen

George Sperling

momentary recall (iconic memory) (tones and letters)

Iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second (recall any part of scene in detail)

Echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

George Miller

we can store about 7 pieces of information in short term memory

Chunking

organizing items into familiar; manageable units; often occurs automatically

Mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

• peg-word system: harnesses our superior visual-imagery skill

hierarchies

composed of a few broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts

• helps us retrieve information efficiently

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

massed practice =

fast short term learning and feeling confident

Distributed practice =

better long term recall

Roediger and Jeffrey Karpicke

testing effect

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information (distribute practice by repeated self-testing)

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words (by words, letters, or even sounds)

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

Craik and Tulving

asked questions that elicit different levels of processing (deeper processing yielding a better memory)

self-reference effect

people excel at remembering personally relevant information