AP Psychology - Memory and Cognition Vocab

memory

the indication that learning has persisted over a continuous time

explicit memory

the facts, events, and experiences that we must consciously recall with effortful processing (processed in hippocampus and frontal lobes)

implicit memory

our learned skills and associations -how to do something or how to react to a situation- that we can unconsciously recall with automatic processing (outside conscious recollection - processed in cerebellum and basal ganglia)

episodic

explicit memory of events and experiences (concious)

semantic

explicit memory of thoughts and knowledge (conscious)

prospective memory

our intended future actions to be retained

primary memory system (working memory)

the process of linking our new experiences (short-term memory) with long term memories

phonological loop

a component of memory that briefly retains auditory information

visuospatial sketchpad

a component of memory that briefly retains visual information about an object’s appearence

long-term memory

permanent and limitless archive of the memory system that keeps memories stored for retrieval (in hippocampus)

short-term memory

brief collection of a few items that can either be stored or forgotten (in amygdala)

sensory memory

the immediate and brief memory of sensory based information

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visuals that lasts no longer than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of sounds that can be recalled within three to four seconds

encode

getting information into our brains

store

retain information found in the brain

retrieve

later utilize and remember the information (get it back out of the brain)

structural

the structure or physical characteristics of an idea that help to memorize it

phonemic

the auditory appeal of an idea that help memorize it

method of loci

walking through a familiar location to associate new information with places to remember it for the future

chunking

the automatic process of organizing items into familiar and manageable groupings

categories

divide ideas into categories to then remember the big ideas with ease

hierarchies

subtopics in a category (ordered structure of ranking)

spacing effect

a method of distributed practice that ensures work is best learned over time

massed practice

cramming learning into one time period making the information short-lived

distributed practice

the distribution of learning over time to enhance long-term retention

serial position effect

the tendency to initially remember the last item in a list, but with time, remember the first one instead (not remember middle items)

primacy effect

when we remember the first information (of a list of ideas) told to us

recency effect

when we remember the last information (of a list of ideas) told to us

amnesia

a condition of memory loss (anterograde - cannot form new events, retrograde - cannot remember past events)

alzheimer’s disease

a disease that causes the brain’s memory to grow weak over time therefore forgetting ideas and skills (remember some implicit)

recall

to produce information once learned or recognized as it is in your conscious awareness (fill-in-the-blanks)

recognition

to identify knowledge already learned (multiple choice)

context-dependent

the idea that our memories depend on their original context to be remembered (outside factors)

mood-congruent

the idea that we remember experiences that are consistent with our current mood

testing effect (retrieval practice)

a phenomenon that ensures actively retrieving information (by testing or quizzing rather than rereading) from memory boosts retention

metacognition

the ability to think about one’s own thoughts and cognitive processes

consolidation

the process where a short-term memory transforms into a long-term memory

memories

information from past experiences -or knowledge- your brain retains and recalls for the future

procedural

memory allowing you to perform tasks automatically without conscious thinking

long-term potentiation

neurons can strengthen connections between each other repeatedly which increases memory

multi-store model

a model showcasing the connection of information through three stages of memory (sensory, short-term, and long-term)

levels-of-processing model

a model showcasing the relationship between processing and retention: the deeper processing is, the better retention of the idea (order - structural, phonemic, semantic, then visual)

maintenance rehearsal

repetition of information to keep it in your working/short-term memory

elaborative rehearsal

information is related to information already in the long-term memory

autobiographical memory

memory of one’s own life events

infantile amnesia

the universal phenomenon of the inability to recall information and memories from childhood

state-dependent

when information is better remembered when you are in your original physical or mental state (inside body - caffeine)

forgetting curve

the concept that the course of forgetting is initially rapid then levels off with time

encoding failure

failing to store information in memory because it was never properly encoded, therefore retention is poor

proactive interference

when prior learning disrupts your recall of new information

retroactive interference

when new learning disrupts your recall of old information

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

the concept that despite feeling confident in an idea one knows, they are unable to recall it

repression (psychodynamic)

as a defense mechanism, dark memories are intentionally buried in the memory

misinformation effect

occurs when a memory has been affected by misleading information affecting the memory’s accuracy

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was sourced

constructive memory

actively reconstructing memories rather than simply retrieving them

imagination inflation

exaggerating the imagination of a memory so much due to a false sense of confidence, this leads to a faulty memory

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

concepts

mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

prototypes

a mental image or best example of a category

assimilation

the process of fitting new information into pre-existing schemas (mental frameworks)

accommodation

the process of adapting our current schemas (mental frameworks) to include new information

creativity

the ability to produce new and valuable ideas

divergent thinking

a method of thinking where we expand the number of possible solutions increasing creative direction

convergent thinking

a method of thinking where we narrow in on the single best solution to a problem

functional fixedness

when our prior experiences inhibit our ability to find creative solutions

algorithm

step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution (lengthy but accurate)

heuristic

mental short-cuts allowing us to make judgments and solve problems (short but error-prone)

representativeness heuristic

to judge the likelihood of something by comparing it to particular prototypes

availability heuristic

to judge the likelihood of something based on it’s availability in memory (easily comes to mind)

mental set

the tendency to approach a problem in one way - a way that is familiar and was successful in the past

priming

when cues stimulate a memory with unconscious connection

framing

the way an issue is presented (manipulated) then affecting decisions and judgment

gambler’s fallacy

the mistaken belief that past independent variables influence future events

sunk-cost fallacy

when people still put effort into something because of invested resources (time, money, or effort) when it is no longer beneficial

frontal lobes and hippocampus

explicit memory information

cerebellum and basal ganglia

implicit memory formation

amygdala

emotion-related memory information

semantic

deeper level of processing to improve retention of knowledge in the memory