Syntax Terms

Syntax

word order/sentence structure, the rules of sentence structure

Descriptive Grammar

how people are actually using grammar

Prescriptive Grammar

how the English language should work

Form

The grammatical category of a word or the relationship of the words in a phrase, clause, or sentence.

Function

The purpose of the forms (to persuade, to remind, to inform, to express surprise).

Important Parts of Speech Cross-Linguistically

nouns, verbs, prepositions, adjectives/adverbs

Ways we use syntax

1) Assess comprehension/expression of Language.
2) All standardized language tests use syntactic information.
3) Our goals/targets for clients are formed by syntax.
4) Syntactic knowledge helps us differentiate between a dialectical difference and a disordered pattern of speech.

Compound Noun

two or more words combine to form a single noun (ex: homework)

Simple Noun

a single noun

Common Noun

a “catch all” category for any other type of noun that is not a proper noun (ex: cat)

Proper Noun

A person’s name, a business name, a formal title; usually capitalized (ex: Katie)

Concrete Noun

a noun that is tangible and physically present; you can interact with it using your 5 senses (ex: dog).

Abstract Noun

a noun that cannot be manipulated, seen, heard, or touched (ex: truth, happiness, love).

Count Nouns

nouns that can be counted (ex: geese/goose, book/books, face, faces)

Non-Count Nouns

nouns that cannot be counted (ex: anger, math)

Collective Nouns

nouns that describe a group (ex: army of ants, flock of seagulls, litter of kittens, bouquet of flowers)

Superordinate Noun

overarching category (ex: animal , mammal, pets)

Basic Noun

middle category; not too specific, not too general (ex: dog)

Subordinate Noun

specific noun (ex: poodle, labrador, collie)

Pronoun

a part of speech that referes to or replaces a noun

Nominative Pronoun

the subject, something doing the action

Objective Pronoun

the object, something had action done on it/them

Possessive Pronoun

something that is owned

Determiner

Modifies a noun, IS NOT a pronoun

Reflexive Pronoun

takes a -self or -selves suffix, is used to indicate a stiatuion when someone performs an action in himself/herself.

Relative Pronoun

Gives more information about the noun they are right next to (like “that” or “who”)

Deixis Pronoun

a demonstrative pronoun, a word that refers to/points to something, singular/plural & near/far (ex: that, these, this, those)

Demonstrative Pronouns

by themselves NO NOUN (ex: I love THOSE)

Demonstrative Adjective

WITH A NOUN, they are not pronouns (ex: I love THOSE things)

Interrogative Pronouns

forms a question, is not next to the noun

Interrogative Adjective

modifies a noun by asking a question, IS RIGHT NEXT TO THE NOUN

Indefinite pronouns

general or unstated referents (ex: I hope EVERYONE is coming to my party)

Reference Cohesion

The clarity between the pronoun and its referent. (Ex of POOR reference cohesion: Elizabeth told Amanda that she had a problem. WHO HAD THE PROBLEM?")

Main Verb

an act or state of being (ex: run, eat, sleep, study, write, speak)

Auxiliary Verb

helping, joins with the main verb to add more info, adds tense/mood/person (ex: be, have, do)

Transitive Verb

transports, describes action from one noun to another, MUST HAVE A DIRECT OBJECT WITH THE SUBJECT (ex: I HIT the pillow, she GAVE money)

Intransitive Verb

it’s a stand alone, no direct object needed, can be followed by an adverb/prepositional phrase (ex: we DANCED all night, we DANCED, she’s EATING in the kitchen, She’s EATING)

Active Verb

emphasis on the subject

Passive Verb

emphasis is on the object

Copular Verbs

links the subject to more information, describes the state of the subject (ex: she WAS tired, your answers WERE clear, the train IS on time)

Modal Verbs

conveys feelings (ex: i CAN go, i COULD go, i MUST go)

Verb Forms: Person

first/second/third, verb forms coordinate with the person of the subject

Verb Form: Number

singular/plural

Verb Form: Voice

sentence structure where the subject of the action is the recipients (or the thing), active/passive

Verb Form: Mood

indicative, imperative, subjunctive

Verb Form: Tense

tells you when an action or state happens, past/present/future

First Person Singular

I am

First Person Plural

We are

Second Person Singular

You are

Second Person Plural

You are

Third Person Singular

He/She is

Third Person Plural

They are

Active Verb Voice

emphasis on the subject, subject+verb+object (ex: the researchers conducted an experiment)

Passive Verb Voice

emphasis on the direct object, object+auxiliary “be” verb+main verb in past tense+”by”+subject (ex: an experiment was conducted by researchers)

Indicative Verb Mood

stating a fact, stating an opinion, asking a question

Imperative Verb Mood

giving a command, subject is usually unstated, verb is usually unconjugated

Subjunctive Verb Mood

used in a dependent clause to indicate a wish or desire

Simple Verb Tense

used to express an action that occurs in the present (/s/, /z/, /Iz/), past (/t/, /d/, /^d/), or future (modal auxiliary+present tense non-inflected verb form)

Progressive Verb Tenses

used to express an action that is ongoing or incomplete, “is verbing.” (PAST: I was going, PRESENT: I am going, FUTURE: I will be going)

Perfect Verb Tenses

used to express an action that has been completed in the past (add /t/, /d/, /^d/, /^n/), have + participle (PAST: I had gone, PRESENT: I have gone, FUTURE: I will have gone)

Perfect Progressive Verb Tenses

used to express an action that has been ongoing in the past, is ongoing in the present, or will be ongoing in the future (PAST: I had been going, PRESENT: I have been going, FUTURE: I will have been going)

Gerunds

verbs that act like nouns, verb+/Ing/ (ex: running is fun, I love running)

Participles

verbs that act like adjectives, main verb + /Ing/ (ex: falling leaves are pretty)

Infinitives

to+verb (ex: she came to get the car)

Simple Present Tense (marking)

morpheme marked in the third person singular, other person/numbers are no inflected, (/s/, /z/, /Iz/)

Simple Past Tense (marking)

marked on all persons and numbers (/t/, /d/, /^d/), also irregular forms

Future Tense (marking)

modal auxiliary (will)+present tense non-inflected form of verb, could also be expressed through simple present+a temporal marker, also present progressive forms.

Progressive Tense (marking)

operates in any tense, like the duct tape

Simple Adjective

just one word

Compound Adjective

two words but they are part of the same adjective

Positive Form Adjectives

the form that is not inflected (modified)

Comparative Form Adjectives

the form that compares two nouns or pronouns (typically with an -er ending unless it is irregular).

Superlative Form Adjectives

the form that compares three or more nouns or pronouns (typically with an -est ending unless it is irregular)

Limiting Adjectives

Describes possessives, cardinal numbers, ordinal numbers, demonstratives, and interrogatives, WH- words. (ex: how much, how many, whose, etc)

Descriptive Adjectives

Describes a quality of the noun. Can be attributive (describing) or predicate (functions as a predicate, the part of a sentence or clause containing a verb or stating something about the subject).

Attributive Adjectives

describes the noun (usually comes before the noun, or could be postpositive in that it comes after the noun or pronoun, it could also come after a superlative)

Predicate Adjectives

functions as a predicate, comes after a state verb like a copula or other state verb.

Simple Adverb

one word, can be inflected (-ly, -wise, -ward)

Compound Adverb

two words that commonly occur together, OR a word with two suffixes (ex: right now, contralaterally)

Positive Adverbs

(ex: quickly, early, fast)

Comparative Adverbs

(ex: more quickly, earlier, faster)

Superlative Adverbs

(ex: most quickly, earliest, fastest)

Adverbs of Manner

describes how an action is done (ex: softly, quickly, gently)

Adverbs of Time

indicates when an action happens (ex: now, soon, yesterday)

Adverbs of Place

shows where an action happens (ex: here, there, everywhere)

Adverbs of Frequency

expresses how often an action takes place (ex: always, often, rarely)

Adverbs of Degree

describe the intensity or extent of an action (ex: very, too, quite)

Adverbs of Reason

provides information about the cause or reason (ex: because, therefore, so)

Adverbs of Number

describes the order (ex: first, second, third)

Adverbs of Negation

(ex: never, no, not)

Adverbs of Affirmation

(ex: certainly, indeed, really)

Conjunctive Adverbs

connects two independent clauses (ex: however, still, furthermore)

Determiner

it limits nouns, attached to the beginning of nouns and can have an intervening adjective only.

Definite Articles

the

Indefinite articles

a, an

Elaborated Noun Phrases

a noun phrase with more information (article, adjective, determiner), (ex: the hats, the big hats, the big ugly green hats, each of the big ugly green hats)

Conjunctions

join “things” together, like words, phrases, and clauses

Simple Conjunctions

closed class, just one word, look for two of the same parts of speech that are being connected.

Phrasal Conjunctions (aka Compound Conjunctions)

contain more than one word while connecting

Coordinating Conjunctions

the semantic information on either side of the conjunction has equal importance (FANBOYS - for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so and then) (ex: anna, justin, and wesley will be here in the morning.)