Religious Organisation: membership: AGE and ETHNICITY and GENDER

General pattern of age from 1980 until predicted now? What did Brierly say?

under 15 = 1165 in 1980 and 338 predicted. 15-19 was 394 and now estimated to be 63. 65+ has increased from 810 to 1070. Brierly says older people are more likely to be religious. In 1979 the average churchgoer was 37 but by 2005 it was 49. 

Why are some reasons older people are more religious?

• More likely to have religious socialisation - historical norm

• lonely/isolated → provides a sense of community (put on things like tea mornings etc)

• Disengagement → retirement => more time for religious activities (boredom)

• Cohort effect (events such as war/trauma/PTSD) means more vulnerable and reminded of this => mass impact and more people lean into it

• easy to participate in

• Ageing effect = poorer health, lean into prayer and religious communities for support and hope = approaching death may become more concerned with matters such as life after death => hope of seeing partners/relatives again.

• Functionalism = psychological function (Malinowski) => links to ageing effect.

Why are some reasons younger people are less religious?

• Science and technology are seen as more credible = younger people grow up with this in education etc

• Peer pressure - if friends are not religious they don’t want to feel like an outcast/be teased

• Branch out to NAM instead = social media helps this

• Commitment of religion isn’t appealing i.e. regular attendance at worship, prayer etc

• Traditional religion is seen as outdated and views have changed

• Growing up in a secular society = less religious socialisation at home and at school - Postmodernism

• Religious services are seen as boring and very passive => younger gen loss of attention spans so will find it harder to sit through service

• Time - more interesting alternatives like friends, work, hobbies instead of practising religion (busy lives => not a priority)

What are young people seeking instead and how does this limit the idea that young people aren’t spiritual?

Young people find appeal in the NAM instead = 21% of adult Americans identify as spiritual but not religious are ages 18 to 29

Characteristics like highly individualistic/low commitment, emphasis on the self and therapy services, and not being taught and given chance to believe own thing ( this means they can still do everything else, secular goals inc, gives people freedom)

=> wrong to say YP are abandoning religion, they are just expressing it in new ways. 

AO3 to the idea that young people have turned to the New Age (data)?

Between 2007 and 2014, there is a 10% decrease in 18-29 being members of NAM and altogether other age groups make up the majority (8% increase for those 50-64) 

=> overexaggerated argument - appealing to all not just young people. 

Are young people not religious anymore? What example can you use in terms of megachurch? 

Rise of Christian consumerism - mega church are protestant congregations and are characterised by charismatic and contemporary worship, tech etc. A famous example is Hillsong 

More active engagement, 116200 under 30, party atmosphere and more inclusive and gives sense of community and belonging. Celebs take part as well bringing more popularity. Instead religion has been given a modern twist. 

Are young people not religious anymore? Age of social media? Stat? Recent events - 2020?

In the age of tik tok, a trend in FaithTok emerges = short snippet videos into what religion is all about and nuns for example will film their lives. Faith becomes more personalised this way.

1/3 18-25 year-olds say that they believe in a ‘higher power’ => more open but still not atheist like many claim.

Since COVID and its uncertainty at the time young people turn to religion for comfort and for something to understand (vulnerability which religion can help for those who need to feel protection)

=> depends on the definition used as ‘God’ is restrictive

What is there to do with the idea that young ethnic groups are more religious? Stats and explanation generally?

perhaps fewer people are believing in religion in West but this is not the case for Muslims for example. 55% Christians younger than 50 whilst 85% Muslims. Modood also says it intersects with age. This may be due to maginalisation and socialisation.

What does ethnicity look like in the UK? Key stats around the main idea of ethnicity and religion?

UK is multicultural with a mix of religions such as Muslims, Hindus, Jews, Sikhs and Buddhists. Modood et al found rates of religious participation to be higher amongst ethnic minorities. 80% of Muslims and 2/3 Hindus, Sikhs and Jews say religion is an important part of their daily lives.

There is also this idea that Black Christians are more likely to be active churchgoers than White Christians.

Pattern and trends from 2011 to 2021 for religions: ethnicity and religion?

• Ethnic minorities have actually increased in a growing secular world (Muslim were 4.9 → 6.5%)

• Secularisation has led to the decline of Christianity (59.3 → 46.2%)

• no religion increased from 25.2% to 37.2%

In short what are the 5 main reasons for higher religiosity amongst ethnic groups?

• Greater levels of religious socialisation

• Cultural defense

• Cultural identity

• Social deprivation

• Cultural transition

Cultural transition - what research supports this and in summary what does religion do?

Helps ease movement from migration as may face obstacles and unfamiliarity => makes them more religious by encouraging them to make greater use of religious centres, activities and services. Get a sense of stability, support and belonging that helps them navigate.

Support:

• Herberg = offers them a cultural space where they could work out their accommodation to new society in their own terms 

• Norwich central Mosque offers a wide range of services: daily prayer, quran classes and community events and social gatherings

Need for it will increase with globalisation and it provides what Malinowski says about the psychological function.

AO3 for cultural transition?

• Functions are temporary as children and grandparents are born into the culture = don’t need religion to transition => provides only some explanation

• Misleading = may already be religious so seeking out smt they already know. Not driven by belief it’s driven by community and support => not truly measuring religiosity

Social deprivation - what research supports this and in summary what does religion do?

poverty and unemploymet more likely to impact ethnic minorities due to instituional racism and status frustration. Religion can offer psychological support (feel better about situation through psychological reward eg Lazarus) and practical support (volunteer exp, offer food and drink, donations, childcare) as charity is engrained eg In Islam Zahat means to give a certain % of income to charity. => provides a source of hope

Support:

• Bird argues that minority ethnic groups in the UK may turn to religion to cope with the economic and social challenges they face.

• East London Mosque and Islamic Relief UK provided vital aid to families in the on-going cost of living crisis (100 food packs and many more)

AO3 for social deprivation

Whilst ethnic minorities do earn 3.8% less, Indians and Chinese tend to buck the trend by having higher average earnings: biotech, doctors, dentistry etc

Not generalisable as must be other reasons for why religiosity occurs

cultural defense - what research supports this and in summary what does religion do?

Religion is used to defend their identity from society’s hostile reactions. They retreat into it for a community of protection that makes them feel more secure, safe and is an outlet for shared experiences which can dissolve anger and ease stress. They may want to resist assimilation even more by expressing themselves through their faith with clothing and practices.

Support:

• People’s temple

• Chryssides sees three possible pathways: apostasy (abandoned), accommodation (beliefs are adapted - British Muslim women wearing fashionable but still modern headscarves) and renewed vigour = reasserted more strongly than ever as a response to hostility - C thinks it has been accommodation and RV in the UK

• Anti-Muslim hate in UK tripled since Hamas attacks 576 cases in London only => would lead to even more frustration and isolation and therefore religion even more of a refuge

Religious socialisation - what research supports this and what in summary what does religion do?

Seen to experience more religious socialisation compared to white, western children. Davie says that they exercise strict control over many aspects of social life and Modood et al found it was a source of socialisation and it maintains traditional morality such as responsibility, trust and right and wrong. They internalise the beliefs and practices of that faith from a young age and carry it into adulthood. 

Support:

• in 63 countries age made no difference to religion 

• Islam is the fastest growing religion in the world.

AO3 for religious socialisation

Not all children will follow teachings of their parents = peer pressure from those who aren’t religious and could live in an area more secular so become more influenced in that regard. Teens are typically more rebellious by nature and so therefore it is not a guarantee that children will be effectively socialised.

Cultural identity - what research supports this and what in summary what does religion do?

Minoirty groups see religion as a way of maintaining cultural identity in terms of tradition such as food (festivals, ceremonies, special diets), art, music, language (scripture giving them a greater connection to God and an ability to maintain their culture) and dress (express identity as symbol of modesty, respect and spirituality). It makes them more religious because religion acts as a link to heritage, offer a sense of belonging, continuity and pride. It helps preserve traditions and resist assimilation and foster solidarity. 

Support:

• Events such as Diwali can signify cultural and religious heritage

• Young Muslim women growing up in multicultural countries such as Australia increasingly report that a hijab is an important tool in the communication of their Muslim community identity and femininity. 

General AO3 for ethnicity and religion

Research is a social construct and should be treated with caution because there may be sense of social desirability (people feel pressured by others to say they are/feel a certain way) so lie about being religious or not. The social pressure to conform means stats aren’t accurate.

While white British people may be experiencing secularisation other white nationalities (Poland, Latvia, Ireland, Spain, US etc) are more religious therefore ‘white’ is a blanket statement that is simplistic. In Greece 92% identify as Orthodox Christian. 

In fact especially before BREXIT European immigrants keep churches alive as they are the highest proportions of churchgoers with demand for Polish masses for example bucking the religious trends 

What are the key stats on gender and religion?

Brierley says most churchgoers are female outnumbering men b almost half a million

34% of women v 54% of men say they are atheist or agnostic 

Apart from Sikhism women most likely to practice religion. (could be AO3)

56% women believed in a personal god compared with 41% of men.

In short what are the 7 main reasons why women are more religious?

• women are more risk adverse

• socialisation, motherhood and femininity

• paid work

• greater life expectancy

• social deprivation, marginality or theodicies of dispriviledge

• religious forms of feminism

• feminsation of religion

Justification for women being more risk adverse? AO3 to this?

In 1994 survey women being less inclined to take risks than men is emphasised by women believing more in elements of religion (84% in God v 75% for men and life after death 57% compared to 39% men) . This may be because they are more aware of consequence and worry so are religious to feel safe and secure

AO3 = data collected in the 1990s so is less relevant to a digitalised society with even greater globalisation = stereotypical and an outdated assumption that women are more risk adverse.

Justification for women socialisation, motherhood and femininity in relation to religion? AO3 to this?

Miller and Hoffman argue there are 2 main reasons

• Passivity and obedience = canalisation and manipulation where taught to be more shy, submissive and compatible due to being good at listening to sermons and to be a follower requires passivity and acceptance.

• Carers = motherhood and looking after sick/elderly relatives as teachings will have more significance, power of ceremonies for protection and can bring up kids with it

AO3:

Justification for women paid work in relation to religion? AO3 to this?

Bruce says women have lower levels of involvement in paid work and as religion has been driven out of the public sphere women are more susceptible so becomes their domain. They have more time to be able to commit and it can be a priority. They miss out on socialising so will turn to religion for unity and belonging. Lack of paid work also aligns with roles in family so caregiving overlaps.