Geography Paper 1 AQA

Natural hazards

A natural event that threatens people or has the potential to cause damage. e.g. floods, volcanic eruption, tropical storm.

Types of Natural hazards

Tectonic Hazards (created through the movement of the earth's tectonic plates) e.g. earthquakes, tsunamis, avalanches.

Atmospheric hazards (created in the atmosphere) e.g. tropical storms, droughts.

Hazard risk

The probability or chance that a natural hazard may take place.

What are factors affecting hazard risk?

Urbanisation - densely populated areas are at greater risk of natural hazards.

Development - HICs are better equipped to cope with natural hazards than LICs

Land Use - Changes in land use e.g. deforestation.

Climate Change - the magnitude and frequency of some climatic hazards.

Layers of the Earth

The inner core, outer core, mantle and crust.

What is continental crust?

Crust varying in thickness from 20 to 200 kilometres, is not as dense as its oceanic counterpart.

What is oceanic crust?

Crust with a thickness ranging from 5 to 10 kilometres, consists predominantly of dense basalt.

What do the crust and upper mantle form?

The lithosphere which is around 100km thick and is solid and brittle.

What is the asthenosphere?

The section of the Earth's mantle beneath the lithosphere, extending from a depth of aproximately 100 kilometres to 400 kilometres.

What is the theory of plate tectonics?

The crust of the earth is split up into 7 large plates.

What is the evidence for continental drift?

The same types of fossilised plants and animals are found in South America and Africa.

The west coast of South America fits the east coast of Africa like a jigsaw puzzle.

Rock formations and mountain chains match in South America and Africa.

Why do tectonic plates move?

Convection currents, ridge push and slab pull.

Convection Currents

The outer core, which is hotter than the mantle, drives convection currents within the mantle. The mantle is solid. However, the asthenosphere can move. The idea is that convection currents reach the asthenosphere and drive the movement of the rigid lithosphere above.

How do convection currents cause plate movements?

As the semi-molten rock in the mantle is heated, it becomes less dense than its surroundings and rises. As it reaches the crust above, it spreads out, carrying the plates above.

Ridge push and Plate movement

Newly-formed plates at oceanic ridges are warm, and so have a higher elevation at the oceanic ridge than the colder, more dense plate material further away; gravity causes the higher plate at the ridge to push away, causing the plates to move away from each other.

Slab pull and plate movement

At destructive plate margins, the denser oceanic plate sinks into the mantle under the influence of gravity, which pulls the rest of the plate along with it into the mantle.

What is the distribution of volcanoes and earthquakes?

Volcanoes occur in narrow bands that coincide with tectonic plate margins. Earthquakes and volcanoes occur both on land and in the sea. Some earthquakes and volcanoes occur away from plate margins at volcanic hotspots, where the Earth's crust is particularly thin.

What are plate boundaries?

The point where two or more plates meet. It is where earthquakes, volcanoes and fold mountains form.

Constructive plate boundaries

This is when two plates move away from each other.

Landforms: Ocean ridge and volcanic islands.

The crust is pulled apart which can cause volcanoes due to the rise of magma.

Destructive plate boundaires

This is when an oceanic plate subducts a continental plate.

Landforms: Fold Mountains and Oceanic Trenches.

Ex.:Pacific Plate and the Eurasian Plate.

Can cause volcanoes and earthquakes.

Conservative plate boundaries

This is when two plates slide past each other.

Ex.:North American Plate and the Pacific Plate.

Pressure causes earthquakes.

Collision plate boundaries

This is when two continental plates move towards each other.

Landforms: Fold Mountains.

Ex.:Australian and the Eurasian Plate.

What are the primary effects of an Earthquake?

People killed and injured, Property and buildings + homes damaged, Bridges + roads + ports destoryed and gas and water pipes and electric cables are broken.

What are the secondary effects of an earthquake?

The economy slowing due to money being spent repairing damage and business activity reduced.

Blocked transport infrastructure restricts emergency services from rescuing people.

Bursted water pipes lead to a shortage of fresh water.

What are the primary effects of a volcanic eruption?

Farmland and property destroyed.

People and livestock killed and injured.

Air travel restricted or cancelled due to ash in the atmosphere.

Contaminated water supplies.

What are the secondary effects of a volcanic eruption?

Emergency services struggle to arrive.

Glaciers covering volcanoes melt, causing flooding.

Rainfall and meltwater mix with volcanic ash to create mudflows (lahars).

Tourism increases with people interested in seeing the impact of the volcanic eruption.

What are immediate responses to tectonic hazards?

Issuing warnings - this can follow volcanic eruptions when activity is likely to continue.

Rescue teams searching for survivors - often, LICs rely on support from aid agencies and HIC governments for support in searching for survivors.

Providing treatment to injured people - this can include providing painkillers or antibiotics and treatment for minor injuries through to emergency surgery for the worst affected.

Long term responses to tectonic hazards?

Rebuilding and repairing properties.

Rebuilding and repairing transport infrastructure.

Improving building regulations.

Restoring utilities such as water, electricity and gas.

Resettling local people.

Nepal Earthquake

In 2015 a 7.8 magnitude earthquake hit Nepal. It's epicentre was 80km northwest of the capital city, Kathmandu.

It was 6.3 on the Richter Scale.

What are the primary effects of the Nepal Earthquake(2015)?

8692 people died and approximately 20000 were injured.

Almost 3 million people were made homeless.

Seven thousand schools were closed.

The cost of the damage was estimated to be around 5 billion dollars.

What were the secondary effects of the Nepal Earthquake(2015)?

An avalanche was triggered on Mout Everest killing 19 people.

Landslides occurred along steep valleys. 250 people were killed when the village of Ghodatabela was covered in material.

People were evacuated due to the risk of flooding when a landslide blocked the Kali Gandaki River.

What were the Immediate Responses the the Nepal Earthquake(2015)?

Rescue teams, medical support and water was provided by the UK, China and India.

126 million dollars were raises in international aid by the Disasters Emergency Committee.

500000 temporary shelters were set up.

What were the Long-Term Responses to the Nepal Earthquake(2015)?

Buildings were constructed from to stricter codes.

Homeless people were re-housed and 7000 schools were re-built.

Base camp at Mount Everest was repaired so climbers could return (valuable source of income).

Why do people chose to live close to volcanoes? - Energy

They can generate geothermal energy which is harnessed by using the steam from underground, which the Earth's magma has heated. The electricity can be used industrially or domestically.

Why do people chose to live close to volcanoes? - Tourism

Volcanoes attract millions of visitors around the world every year. This creates many jobs for people in the tourism industry including jobs in hotels, restaurants and gift shops.

Why do people chose to live close to volcanoes? - Mining

Lava from deep within the Earth contains minerals that include gold, silver, diamonds, copper and zinc, depending on their mineral composition.

Why do people chose to live close to volcanoes? - Agriculture

Volcanic areas often contain some of the most mineral rich soils globally, which are ideal for farming.

How can risk of volcano eruptions be reduced? - Monitoring

Monitoring levels of gas around the volcano, such as radon and sulphur gases, are alo used as these are often released before volcanic activity.

Thermal heat sensors can be utilised to detect changes in the surface temperature of the volcano.

How can risk of volcano eruptions be reduced? - Prediction

By monitoring the movement of tectonic plates and changes in the surface of the volcano, scientists can predict the likelihood of a volcanic eruption and forecast which areas should be prepared for one.

How can risk of volcano eruptions be reduced? - Protection

Dropping bombs on advancing lava flows to redirect the flow away from settlements.

Blasting the lava with seawater in order to redirect the lava flow.

How can risk of volcano eruptions be reduced? - Planning

By having an evacuation plan, this can allow for an emergency shelter and food supplies to be planned for in a shelter.

What is Global Atmospheric Circulation?

The air in the atmosphere moves in response to differences in temperature at the equator (warm) and the poles (cold). This movement is called global atmospheric circulation.

Hadley Cell

This is the air movement between the equator and 30 degrees north and south.

Ferrel Cell and Polar Cell

Air rises at around 60 degrees north and south and descends at around 90 degrees north and south, forming the Ferrel and Polar Cell.

Differential Heating

Caused by the rotation of the Earth and the amount of heat different parts of the globe receive.

Westerlies

The surface winds blow from the southwest and are called the prevailing westerlies.

What are tropical storms?

A powerful low-pressure weather system that forms in tropical regions. They have strong winds and heavy rainfall that can be disruptive and dangerous.

Where do Tropical Storms happen?

They typically develop over warm oceans waters (at least 26.5 degrees celcius). Between 5 and 30 degrees latitude.

Hurricanes

In the Atlantic and Eastern Pacific.

Tropical Cyclones

In Southeast Asia and Eastern Africa.

Willy Willies

In Australia.

Typhoons

In the Western Pacific.

How are tropical storms classified?

Categories based on wind speed, central pressure, and damage potential.

How can Climate Change affect the distribution, frequency and intensity of tropical storms?

Global temperature increase means that more of the worlds oceans could be above 27 degrees celcius(tropical storm temperature).

A warmer atmosphere will mean more moisture in the air, so heavy rainfall is expected to increase. More destructive tropical storms.

Increasing sea levels will mean storm surges are expected to become higher.

What are the Primary effects of Tropical Storms?

People are inured or killed by debris being blown around.

Drowining.

Buildings are destroyed or damaged.

Electric supplies are cut off due to power lines being destroyed.

Sewage is released due to the flooding.

What are Secondary Effects of Tropical Storms?

People being left homeless.

A lack of clean water and sanitation. Diseases can affect local people.

Road and rail networks can be blocked by debris, making it difficult to support and aid for people affected.

Unemployment is caused by businesses being damaged.

What are immediate responses to Tropical Storms?

People are evacuated before the storm lands.

Rescue people trapped and provide medical support for injured people.

Temporary shelters are set up for people made homeless by the storm.

Provide water and food for people.

What are long term responses to Tropical Storms?

Repair and rebuild properties.

Rehouse people.

Repair the transport infrastructure.

Improve forecasting and early warning systems.

Provide grans and aid to people to help rebuild their homes.

Typhoon Haiyan

A category 5 typhoon, struck the phillipenes close to the Tacloban in 2013.

Wind speeds of 314 km/h.

What were the primary effects of Typhoon Haiyan?

Strong winds battered homes.

People were made homeless, particularly around Western and Eastern Visayas.

electric was interrupted.

1.1 million houses damaged.

6190 people died. 29,000 injured.

What were the secondary effects of Typhoon Haiyan?

Infection and diseases spread, mainly due to contaminated surface and ground water.

Education was disrupted as many schools were destroyed.

An oil tanker ran aground, causing an 800,000-litre oil leak that contaminated fishing waters.

Flooding caused landslides.

What were the immediate responses to Typhoon Haiyan?

The government issued a televised warning to people to prepare and evacuate.

Over 1,200 evacuation centres were set up to help the homeless.

Three days after the storm, the main airport was reopened, and emergency aid arrived. Power was restored in some regions after a week.

What were the long-term responses to Typhoon Haiyan?

A cash for work programme paid people to clear debris and rebuild Tacloban.

The international charity organisation Oxfam replaced fishing boats.

Build Back Better is the government's response to the typhoon. Launched in 2014, it intended to upgrade the damaged buildings to protect them from future disasters.

Monitoring and Prediction for a Tropical Storm

Satellite and radar technology are used to track the development and approach of a tropical storm. These, combined with weather charts and computer software, are used to predict the path a tropical storm could take.

Protection from a Tropical Storm

Have windows covered with metal shutters.

Buildings are often build off the ground with deep-pile concrete pillars that dissipate energy.

Buildings can be made from reinforced concrete.

Planning for a Tropical Storm

People who live in areas prone to tropical storms are advised to stock up on food and water as they may be housebound for several days following a storm.

Governments advise people preparing and responding to tropical storms.

Storm Events in the UK

The UK regularly experiences depressions, areas of low pressure, which bring strong winds and heavy rain, particularly to the west and north of the country.

Impact: There will be increased levels of rainfall and it may lead to a greater frequency of flash flooding.

Temperatures in the UK

Data from the Met Office suggests mean temperatures in the UK are increasing. There has been an increase from around 8.3-degree celcius to 9.25 from 1910 to 2015.

Temperatures are not expected to rise each year.

Impact: Increasing temperatures can cause water shortages and drought.

Wind in the UK

The UK is becoming windier. This is due to an increase in low-pressure systems crossing the UK compared to high-pressure systems, which bring calmer conditions.

Impact: Strong winds can cause damage to properties and disrupt the transport infrastructure.

Heatwaves in the UK

The UK sometimes experiences heat waves. These are extended periods of hot weather. This means that levels of air pollution can increase which leads to people experiencing respiratory problems.

Snow and Ice in the UK

Cold conditions occur if the usual depressions are not passing over the UK. Cold snaps lead to schools and businesses closing, causing significant problems for the transport network.

What caused The Beast From the East?

Cold winds from Russia traveled as far as the UK.

In Febuary there is usually a polar vortex (a large mass of cold air) - in the upper atmosphere. The vortex is usually what causes air to move from west to east.

Primary Impacts of The Beast From The East...

10 People died.

Up to 50cms of snow fell on high ground.

Rural areas experienced temperature lows of up to -12 degrees celcius.

Secondary Impacts from The Beast From The East...

Hundreds of schools were forced to close.

Many rail services were cancelled.

British Airways cancelled hundreds of short-haul flights from Heathrow.

The National Grid issued a 'gas deficit warning' prompting fears of a shortage.

There was a shortgage of food in some supermarkets.

Responses to the Beast From The East

Red Weather warnings were issued covering parts of Scotland, Devon, Somerset, and South Wales.

The Environment Agency issued flood warnings for parts of Cornwall's south coast.

High on the Pennies on the M62, the military provided support rescuing vehicles.

Is the UK's weather becoming more extreme?

The UK temperature extremes are changing much faster than average.

2022 was a record warm year for the UK, made more likely by Climate Change.

In 2022, the UK received 6% below average rainfall.

Temperature in the UK

2022 was the warmest year in the UK series from 1884, 0.9 degrees celcius above the 1991-2020 average.

All the top 10 warmest years for the UK in the series from 1884 have occured in the 21st century.

Precipitation in the UK

2022 rainfall was 94% of the 1991-2020 average.

There has been a slight increase in heavy rainfall across the UK in recent decades.

5 of the 10 wettest years for the UK in a series from 1836 have occured in the 21st century.

Sunshine in the UK

2022 was the seventh sunniest year in the UK series from 1910, with 110% of the 1991-2020 average.

January 2022 was the sunniest January for England, and March was the sunniest March for Scotland and Northern Ireland in the series.

What is Climate Change?

Any significant change in the Earth's climate over a long period.

What is the Quaternary Period?

It spans from 2.6 million years ago to the present. It marks a cooling trend, starting the most recent ice age.

What was earth's climate like before the Quaternary Period?

It was warmer and more stable.

How have Global temperatures shifted?

They have shifted between cold glacial periods and warmer interglacial periods.

What is the evidence for Climate Change - Ice and Sediment Cores

A sample is taken from a glacier or ice sheet and a cylinder is removed. It is possible to analyse the gases from each year to work out the temperature at that time.

Samples of Sediment are taken from the ocean floor and can also indicate temperature over time. It has been possible to gather information from the last 5 million years.

Climate Change - Temperature Records

Thermometers have been used to measure temperatures which provides reliable, short term data on climate change.

Climate Change - Tree Rings

Each year a tree grows, it forms a new ring. The thicker the ring, the warmer and wetter the climate for that year.

Climate Change - Pollen Analysis

Analysing pollen preserved in peat bogs or the bottom of lakes indicates the species living in the past. This indicates temperatures based on what we know about the conditions different plants thrive in.

What are Human Factors enhancing The Greenhouse Effect?

Deforestation - trees absorb carbon dioxide during photosynthesis. Less carbon will be absorbed, meaning there will be a higher concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

Burning fossil fuels - when coal, oil and gas are burned, carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere.

Agriculture - more methane is realeased into the atmosphere.

Dumping waste in a landfill - as waste decomposes, it releases into the atmosphere.

Natural Factors enhancing the greenhouse effect

Orbital Changes - Milankovitch cycles are variations in the tilt/orbit of the Earth around the Sun, causing natural warming and cooling periods.

Volcanic Eruptions - Carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere during eruptions.

Solar Output - The amount of radiation emitted by the Sun fluctuated. High levels of radiation lead to an increase in Earth's temperatures.

What are the effects of Climate Change?

Rising sea levels leading to the indundation of low-lying coastal areas.

Ski resorts in scotland could close.

More extreme weather causing floods and drought.

What are potential benefits to Climate Change?

Winter heating costs may reduce as winters become milder.

More people choosing to stay on holiday in the UK, which will support economic growth.

New crops such as oranges, grapes and peaches will be grown in the UK.

What are Climate Change effects globally?

Sea levels rise affecting 80 million people.

Tropical storms will become more frequent and stronger as the temperature of the ocean in the tropics becomes warmer.

There will be an increase in extinction as ecosystems are affected by the changing climate.

What are the global benefits from Climate Change?

A decrease in energy consumption as the climate becomes warmer.

The growing season will increase in some areas leading to more crops being grown.

What are some Alternative Energy Production Methods?

Wind, Solar and tidal energy.

What is Carbon Capture?

This involves reducing carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel-burning power stations. Carbon dioxide is removed from waste gases. Once captured, the carbon dioxide is then converted into a dense liquid which can be stored in safe locations.

Planting Trees

This helps reduce the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere as trees absorb it as a part of photosynthesis. Through afforestation (planting trees) greenhouse gases will be reduced.

International Agreements

The Kyoto Protocol is an international law that countries signed up to reduce their carbon emissions by 5 percent that came into effect on 16th Febuary 2005. Its impact has been limited due to major developing countries not being required to make reductions.

Climate Change Adaptation

This is to reduce Climate Change's negative effects. This is by changes in agricultural systems, managing water supply and reducing the risk from rising sea levels.

Change in Agricultural systems

Changing the type of crops they grow to those better suited to a warm climate.

Managing Water Supply

Moving water from areas of surplus to areas of water deficit by building a water pipeline.