Pillavin et al - "Subway Samaritans" (1969)

Bystanders

Individuals present at an event but do not actively assist those in need.

Bystander apathy

Failure of individuals to help in such situations where other person is in need.

Diffusion of responsibility

Occurs when an incident is observed by multiple people, leading individuals to feel less personal responsibility to act. As the number of bystanders increases, each person's sense of obligation decreases, reducing feelings of guilt for not helping. As a result, in situations with many witnesses, a victim is less likely to receive assistance.

Background of the Study

The tragic death of Kitty Genovese inspired extensive research by John Darley and Bibb Latané into bystander apathy and the factors influencing prosocial behavior.

Key studies include Darley and Latané's (1968), Rodin's (1969), Bryan and Test (1967). Most prior studies on helping behavior were conducted in controlled laboratory environments, focusing on internal validity. Piliavin et al. aimed to build on this research by examining bystander behavior in a real-world context to enhance ecological validity.

Aims of the study

To see how these factors affected help offered to a passenger who collapsed in the carriage:

Type of victim: Drunk or ill.

• Race of the victim: Black or white.

• Modeled help: Whether assistance was initiated by another passenger.

• Group size: Number of people present in the carriage.
  

Research Methodology

• Field Experiment

• 7.5 minute express train

• Took place at 59th Street and 125th Street stations of the Eighth Avenue Independent branch of the New York Subways (Harlem to the Bronx)

• Weekdays between 11:00 AM - 3:00 PM

• April 15 - June 16, 1968

Experimental Design

Independent Measures Design.

Data Collection

Data collection was done through covert observation by two observers.

Observer 1

• Recorded the number of passengers in the carriage.

• Documented the race, sex, and location of every passenger in the critical area.

• Noted how many people assisted the victim and their race, sex, and location.

Observer 2

• Recorded the race, sex, and location of passengers in the adjacent area.

• Measured the time taken to assist after the victim’s collapse.

Both Observer 1/2

• Noted comments made by passengers.

• Actively attempted to elicit comments when possible.

Independent Variables

• Condition of the victim: Drunk or ill.
  

• Race of the victim: Black or white.
  

• Proximity of the helpful model: Critical area or adjacent area.
  

• Speed of model's help: How quickly help was offered.
  

• Group size: Number of passengers in the carriage.

Dependent Variables

• Time taken for help to arrive (before and after modelled help).
  

• Sex and race of the first helper.
  

• Movement of passengers out of the critical area (where the collapse occurred).
  

• Spontaneous comments made by passengers about the incident.

Sample

• 4,450 men and women.

• 45% Black and 55% White.

• Opportunity sample.

• Did not give informed consent and were unaware they were part of a study.

• Mean number of people per car was 43

• Mean number in the critical area (where the incident occurred) was 8.5.

Procedure (Beginning)

• A team of four general studies students from Colombia University conducted the trials, entering the subway carriage through separate doors.
  

• Two female observers sat in different locations to record data.

• Two male students:

  • One played the role of the victim, standing centrally in the "critical area."

  • The other played the role of the model, standing nearby.

Procedure (During)

• Seventy seconds into the journey, the victim collapsed onto the floor and lay on their back, staring at the ceiling.
  

• The victim remained in this position until they received help.
  

• If no help was provided by the time the train reached the next station, the model assisted the victim to their feet.

Procedure (ending)

The team re-boarded a train traveling in the opposite direction and conducted around six to eight trials per day.

Victim General Characteristics

There were four teams of students, each with a victim aged 26–35, dressed identically in old trousers, an eisenhower jacket, and no tie.

One victim was black, and three were white.

Conditions of the experiment

• Drunk condition: 38 trials.

  • Victim carried a liquor bottle wrapped in a brown bag and smelled of alcohol.

• Ill condition: 65 trials.

  • Victim carried a black cane.

Model General Characteristics

• All were white males aged 24–29.

• Assisted the victim to a sitting position and stayed with them until the train stopped.

• No model condition: No help was provided by the model.

Model Conditions

• Critical area-early: Model stood in the critical area and helped after 70 seconds.
  

• Critical area-late: Model stood in the critical area and helped after 150 seconds.
  

• Adjacent area-early: Model stood adjacent to the critical area and helped after 70 seconds.
  

• Adjacent area-late: Model stood adjacent to the critical area and helped after 150 seconds.
  
  The order of conditions was randomized.

Helping behavior by gender (Results)

• Males were significantly more likely to help than females.

• 90% of first helpers were male.

Helping behavior by race (Results)

68% of helpers were white.

Movement from the critical area

In 20% of trials, passengers left the critical area, with a total of 31 people leaving.

Bystander comments

• It's for men to help him."

• "I wish I could help him—I'm not strong enough."

• "I never saw this kind of thing before; I don't know where to look."

• "You feel so bad that you don't know what to do."

Type of victim (results)

A person appearing ill is more likely to receive help that one appearing drunk (62/65 of trials versus 19/38 of trials). The ill victim was helped 100 per cent of the time when there was no model.

Race of victim (results)

There was no tendency for same-race helping unless the victim was drunk.

The drunk white victim was helped 100 per cent of the time, while the drunk black victim was only helped 73 per cent of the time and more frequently by black helpers than white.

On 9 per cent of trials with a black victim, people left the critical area vs 5 per cent of trials with a white victim.

Modelled help (results)

Early models were more likely to elicit additional help than late models (4 vs 2).

Group size (Results)

There was a weak positive correlation between group size and helping behavior. Groups of seven or more were faster to respond than groups of three.