APES Unit 4 Vocabulary

acid deposition

acid deposition

any form of precipitation with acidic components (e.g. sulfuric acid, nitric acid, etc)

aka acid rain

adiabatic heating/cooling

responses to changes in PRESSURE, which are a factor in global air circulation patterns

heating: as air descends, the higher pressure causes its volume to decrease (contract), leading to an increase in temperature

cooling: as air rises, the lower pressure causes its volume to increase (expand), which in turn cools the air

albedo

the measure of reflectivity of a surface, indicating how much sunlight is reflected back into space

e.g. ice sheets (which are white & highly reflective) reflect solar energy, but as the ice melts and reveals the dark ocean/ground, solar radiation is being absorbed

asthenosphere

the outer part of the mantle, composed of semi-molten rock

100-412km below Earth’s surface

pressure & temp are so high that rocks melt, making them semi-molten

axial tilt

Earth's tilt on its axis relative to its orbital plane around the Sun, affecting seasons

e.g. when Earth’s axis tilts toward the Sun, it is summer for that hemisphere

base saturation

(chemical property of soil)

proportion of bases to acids, expressed as percentage

bases: essential for nutrition (Ca, K, Mg, Na)

acids: detrimental (Al, H)

cation exchange capacity (CEC)

(chemical property of soil)

the ability of soil or other substances to hold and exchange positively charged ions (calcium, magnesium, and potassium)

crucial factor in determining soil fertility and nutrient availability for plants

high CEC means a soil can hold onto more nutrients (clay & organic matter have a high CEC)

chemical weathering

change in chemical composition of mineral compounds (e.g. carbonation, hydrolysis, oxidation, hydration)

releases essential nutrients from rocks

important part of phosphorus cycle

climate

patterns of temperature, precipitation, wind, and other atmospheric conditions in a region

convection cells: Hadley, Ferrell, Polar

global patterns of air movement, initiated by the unequal heating of Earth

Hadley: occur between 0° and 30° latitudes (directly north and directly south of the equator). at the equator, these cells start with warm, rising air. then, as the air moves away from the equator, the air falls as cooler air.

Ferrell: occurs between 30° and 60° latitudes. around 30° latitude, the cold, dry air of a Hadley cell falls, pushing warm air up.

Polar: occur at latitudes greater than 60°. it starts around the 60° latitude line where warm air from the ferrell cell is pushed up. at higher latitudes, the air cools and falls as dry air on the poles.

convergent boundary

tectonic plate boundary where two plates move towards each other, resulting in collision or subduction

leads to the formation of mountains, earthquakes, and volcanic activity

core/mantle/crust

layers of the Earth

Core: innermost (made of iron & nickel)

Mantle: middle (semi-solid rock)

Crust: outermost layer (solid rock)

Coriolis effect

the deflection of moving objects (wind, water, etc.) caused by Earth's rotation

in the Northern Hemisphere, objects veer to the right; in the Southern Hemisphere, to the left

divergent boundary

tectonic plate boundary where plates move away from each other

leads to the formation of new crust through seafloor spreading or rift valleys

earthquake

natural disaster caused by the sudden release of energy in the Earth's crust, resulting in shaking and trembling of the ground

measured by the Richter scale

ENSO: El Nino Southern Oscillation (El Nino, La Nina)

climate patterns influencing global weather

El Niño causes the Pacific jet stream to move south and spread further east

La Niña causes the jet stream to move northward and to weaken over the eastern Pacific

epicenter

the point on the Earth's surface directly above the focus of an earthquake

where the seismic waves reach first and are most intense

erosion

process of wearing away or displacement of rocks and soil by wind, water, or other natural agents

leads to changes in landscapes and landforms

exosphere

the outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere, where gases transition into space

satellites orbit in this region

floodplain

land beside rivers, ponds, lakes, and oceans that gets flooded regularly

creates fertile soil for agriculture and pose risks to settlements

gyre

large systems of circulating ocean currents (kind of like slow-moving whirlpools)

affects temp, salinity, & nutrient distribution globally

5 most important gyres: the North Atlantic Gyre, the South Atlantic Gyre, the North Pacific Gyre, the South Pacific Gyre, and the Indian Ocean Gyre

hot spot

places where molten material from the mantle reach the lithosphere

igneous

rocks formed from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava

can be intrusive (formed underground) or extrusive (formed on the surface)

insolation

the thermal radiation received from the Sun per unit surface area of the Earth

areas where the Equator come into closer contact with the Sun, meaning they receive higher insolation

ITCZ: Intertropical Convergence Zone

belt near the Equator where trade winds converge / area of Earth that receives the most intense sunlight (Equator) and where the ascending branches of the two Hadley cells converge

causes uplift, cloud formation, and heavy rainfall

plays a crucial role in global climate patterns

latent heat release

release of energy as heat when water vapor condenses into precipitation

lithosphere

the rigid, brittle outer layer of Earth (100km thick), consisting of the crust and upper mantle

magma

molten or semi-molten material found beneath the Earth's surface

moves in convection cells (hot, less dense material rises, cooler more dense material falls)

can erupt as lava and form igneous rocks upon cooling

mesosphere

layer of Earth's atmosphere above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere

as you go up in this layer, temperature decreases

metamorphic

rocks formed from pre-existing rocks that undergo intense heat and pressure, causing them to recrystallize without melting

e.g. marble, quartzite, soapstone, etc

parent material

the unconsolidated material from which soil develops, including rocks, minerals, and organic matter

influences soil properties and composition

permeability

measure of how easily substances can flow through a medium (how water moves through the soil)

from most to least permeability: sand > silt > clay

physical weathering

mechanical breakdown of rocks and minerals

abiotic causes: water, wind, temp variations

biotic causes: plant roots, burrowing animals

porosity

% of space in the soil sample

e.g. clay has many small pore spaces to hold water (porosity), but water cannot permeate

rain shadow effect

effect that describes when one side of a mountain receives more precipitation than the other side

on the windward side, warm, moist air rises up the mountain, cools, and falls as precipitation

however, the leeward side doesn’t receive much precipitation because the air doesn't have much moisture left

richter scale

measures earthquake magnitude

logarithmic scale (each whole number increase represents 10 times greater amplitude and 31.6 times more energy released)

rock cycle

the process by which one rock type changes into another (between igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks)

saltwater intrusion

movement of saline water into freshwater aquifers

saltwater infiltrates freshwater aquifers and contaminates drinking water

saturation point

maximum amount of water vapor that can be in the air at a given temperature

once you reach that point, it rains!

seafloor spreading

process that takes place at divergent boundaries on the ocean floor

two tectonic plates move apart from each other, magma goes up through the space between the plates, & the cool ocean water cools it down and more rock forms

sedimentary rocks

formed as sediment (eroded rocks and the remains of plants and animals) builds up and is compressed

processes: weathering, compaction and cementation

e.g. sandstone, shale, and limestone

seismic activity

vibrations & movements in the Earth's crust caused by the release of energy from tectonic plates

soil degradation

the physical, chemical and biological decline in soil quality

anthropogenic causes: compaction of soil from livestock & machinery causes drying, water logging, & increased resistance for root development

soil horizons

distinct layers of soil that form as a result of various processes

O Horizon (Humus): surface litter, like leaves and other decaying matter

A Horizon (Topsoil): mixture of organic materials with minerals

E Horizon (Eluviated): zone of leaching, nutrients from upper horizons moves to lower horizons

B-Horizon (Subsoil): zone of accumulation where minerals such as iron and other nutrients accumulate

C Horizon (Parent Material): the material that is broken down to create the soil

Bedrock: solid rock that lies beneath the parent material and soil

soil texture triangle

identify soil using the percentage of clay, silt, and sand

clay lines go straight across, silt lines go down diagonally, and sand lines go up diagonally

stratosphere

layer of Earth's atmosphere above the troposphere (10-50 km above the Earth's surface)

contains the ozone layer

subduction

when the MORE dense plate is pushed underneath the LESS dense plate, forming volcanoes and a trench

happens at a convergent boundary

thermohaline circulation

the pattern by which the density of water increases as it becomes colder and saltier; thus it sinks at high latitudes and is replaced by warmer water from the tropics flowing north

key mechanism that impacts the Earth’s climate

climate change (warming near Greenland) is affecting this pattern

thermosphere

50 to 100km in altitude & the temperature increases as you increase in altitude because it receives a lot of UV radiation and energy from the sun

traps protons, electrons, and other ions given off by the sun

transform boundary

type of plate boundary where plates slide past each other horizontally

pressure builds up and when that pressure is released suddenly, an earthquake occurs

troposphere

starts at ground level and goes up 10km

shallowest layer of the atmosphere, temperature decreases as altitude increases, & all weather occurs in this atmospheric layer

upwelling

cold water from the deep ocean rises toward the surface of the ocean

caused by strong winds & rotation of the Earth, which moves warmer surface waters offshore allowing the cold, nutrient rich water to rush up (nutrient rich water is primarily found at the bottom of the ocean)

water holding capacity

measure of the ability of air to hold water

i.e warmer air has a higher water vapor capacity, while colder air has a lower water vapor capacity

weather

short-term changes in temperature, barometric pressure, humidity, precipitation, sunshine, cloud cover, wind direction, and other conditions in the troposphere at a given place and time