unit 4

Attribution Theory

Explores how we explain behavior, both our own and others', covering internal and external attributions, explanatory styles, and common biases.

Internal Attributions

Connect behavior to internal qualities like intelligence or personality.

External Attributions

Link behavior to external circumstances the person experiences.

Dispositional Attributions

Connect behavior to internal qualities like intelligence or personality.

Situational Attributions

Link behavior to external circumstances the person experiences.

Example of Dispositional Attribution

A student fails a test because they are not smart enough or didn't study hard enough.

Example of Situational Attribution

A student fails a test because the test was too difficult or they were dealing with personal issues.

Explanatory Style

A person's predictable pattern of attributions for good and bad events in their own life and others' lives.

Optimistic Explanatory Style

Attributes good events to internal, stable, global causes and bad events to external, unstable, specific causes.

Pessimistic Explanatory Style

Attributes good events to external, unstable, specific causes and bad events to internal, stable, global causes.

Example of Optimistic Explanatory Style (Good Event)

"I got an A on the test because I'm smart and studied hard."

Example of Optimistic Explanatory Style (Bad Event)

"I failed the test because it was really hard this time."

Example of Pessimistic Explanatory Style (Good Event)

"I got an A on the test because it was easy this time."

Example of Pessimistic Explanatory Style (Bad Event)

"I failed the test because I'm not good at this subject."

Actor-Observer Bias

People tend to attribute their own behavior to situational factors, but attribute others' behavior to dispositional factors.

Example of Actor-Observer Bias

"I was late because there was a lot of traffic" (own behavior, situational) vs. "They were late because they're always disorganized" (others' behavior, dispositional).

Fundamental Attribution Error

Overestimating the influence of dispositional factors and underestimating the influence of situational factors when explaining others' behavior.

Example of Fundamental Attribution Error

Assuming a quiet person is shy (dispositional) without considering they may be tired or in a bad mood (situational).

Self-Serving Bias

Tendency to attribute successes to internal factors and failures to external factors to maintain self-esteem.

Example of Self-Serving Bias (Success)

"I got the job because I'm highly qualified."

Locus of control

The extent to which people believe they have control over events in their lives.

Internal locus of control

Belief that one's own actions determine outcomes.

External locus of control

Belief that outside forces (luck, fate, powerful others) determine outcomes.

Applications of locus of control

People with an internal locus of control tend to have better mental health, higher achievement motivation, and cope better with stress.

External locus of control consequences

People with an external locus of control are more prone to learned helplessness and may be less motivated to change their circumstances.

Example of internal locus of control

Student with internal locus of control: 'I need to study harder next time to improve my grade.'

Example of external locus of control

Student with external locus of control: 'The teacher made the test too hard, there's nothing I can do.'

Mere exposure effect

Phenomenon where people tend to like a stimulus more simply because they've been exposed to it repeatedly over time.

Example of mere exposure effect in music

Liking a song more after hearing it multiple times on the radio.

Example of mere exposure effect in branding

Developing a preference for a certain brand after seeing its advertisements frequently.

Influence of mere exposure effect on person perception

Mere exposure effect can influence person perception by increasing liking for people seen more often, even without direct interaction.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

When people's beliefs or perceptions about themselves or others lead them to behave in ways that elicit confirming behaviors from others.

Example of self-fulfilling prophecy in education

A teacher believes a student is not smart, gives them less attention and support, leading to lower performance that confirms the initial belief.

Example of self-fulfilling prophecy in social situations

A person believes they are socially awkward, acts nervous and withdrawn in social situations, causing others to interact less with them and reinforcing their self-perception.

Social comparison

Evaluating oneself based on comparisons to others in society or social circles.

Upward social comparison

Comparing oneself to someone seen as better off, which can inspire self-improvement but may also threaten self-esteem.

Downward social comparison

Comparing oneself to someone seen as worse off, which can boost self-esteem but may hinder motivation to improve.

Relative deprivation

Perception of being deprived of something one feels entitled to, often based on social comparisons.

Example of relative deprivation

Feeling dissatisfied with one's income after learning that a coworker in a similar position earns more.

Stereotypes and implicit attitudes

Shape our perceptions of others, often leading to biased thinking and behavior.

Belief perseverance

The tendency to cling to beliefs despite contradictory evidence.

Cognitive dissonance

Experience discomfort when our actions and attitudes clash, driving us to resolve these inconsistencies.

Stereotypes

Oversimplified, generalized beliefs about a particular group of people.

Cognitive Load Reduction

Can reduce cognitive load when making quick decisions or judgments.

Limited Perceptions

Often based on limited or biased perceptions and experiences.

Prejudiced Attitudes

Frequently lead to prejudiced attitudes and discriminatory behaviors.

Biased Thinking

Stereotypes can be both the cause and result of biased thinking.

Limited Exposure

May stem from limited exposure to a particular group.

Confirmation Bias

Can be reinforced by selective attention to information that confirms the stereotype.

Implicit Attitudes

Unconscious or unacknowledged evaluations individuals hold about others.

Behavior Influence

Can influence behavior and decision-making without conscious awareness.

Negative Evaluations

Research has focused on how implicit attitudes often reflect negative evaluations of others.

Just-World Phenomenon

Assumes people get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

Out-Group Homogeneity Bias

Perceives members of other groups as more similar to each other than members of one's own group.

In-Group Bias

Favors one's own group over others.

Ethnocentrism

Judges other cultures based on the standards of one's own culture.

Belief Perseverance

The tendency to cling to a belief even when presented with contradictory evidence.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to seek out and interpret information in a way that confirms pre-existing beliefs.

Ignoring Evidence

May involve dismissing or ignoring evidence that challenges the belief.

Cognitive Dissonance

The mental discomfort experienced when actions and attitudes are inconsistent.

Behavior-Value Contradiction

Can occur when behavior contradicts beliefs or values.

Motivation to Reduce Dissonance

People are motivated to reduce cognitive dissonance to alleviate mental discomfort.

Change Actions

May change actions to align with attitudes.

Change Attitudes

May change attitudes to justify actions.

Social Institutions

Organized structures and norms that govern behaviors and meet societal needs.

Family

Primary social institution for early socialization, nurturing, and support.

Education

Formal and informal learning systems that impart knowledge, skills, and social values.

Religion

Provides moral guidelines, sense of community, and a way to cope with existential questions.

Government

Structures and enforces laws, ensures security, and manages societal resources.

Economy

Organizes production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.

Social Norms

Established rules that dictate expected behaviors in specific social contexts.

Role Theory

Suggests that social roles come with specific expectations that influence individual behavior.

Conformity

Adjusting behaviors or beliefs to align with group norms.

Obedience

Complying with orders or directions from authority figures.

Socialization

Process of learning and internalizing societal norms, values, and behaviors, largely influenced by institutions.

Primary Socialization

Early socialization in the family setting.

Secondary Socialization

Learning appropriate behavior in smaller groups and institutions beyond the family.

Influence of Peer Groups

Peer groups are influential in shaping attitudes, behaviors, and identities, especially in adolescence.

Groupthink

Desire for harmony leads to consensus-seeking behavior, often at the expense of critical thinking.

Group Polarization

Tendency for group discussion to strengthen the prevailing opinion.

Social Loafing

Reduced effort by individuals when working in a group compared to working alone.

Id

Primitive desires and instincts, seeking immediate gratification.

Ego

Rational part that mediates between id and reality.

Superego

Internalized moral standards and values.

Repression

Unconscious exclusion of distressing thoughts.

Denial

Refusal to accept reality.

Projection

Attributing one's own undesirable feelings to others.

Psychosexual Stages of Development

Stages include Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, and Genital. Each stage focuses on different erogenous zones and impacts personality development.

Carl Jung

Introduced the concepts of collective unconscious and archetypes.

Alfred Adler

Emphasized the importance of social interest and feelings of inferiority.

Karen Horney

Challenged Freud's theories on female psychology and emphasized cultural influences.

Humanistic Theories of Personality

Stresses free will, self-efficacy, and the inherent goodness of people.

Carl Rogers

Emphasized self-concept, the importance of unconditional positive regard, and conditions of worth.

Abraham Maslow

Developed the hierarchy of needs, culminating in self-actualization as the highest human potential.

Reciprocal Determinism

Concept by Albert Bandura that suggests an interaction between individual, behavior, and environment.

Observational Learning

Learning by observing others; highlights the role of modeling.

Self-Efficacy

Belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations.

Locus of Control

Internal Locus: Belief that one controls their own fate. External Locus: Belief that outside forces control outcomes.

Big Five Model

Openness: Creativity and willingness to try new things. Conscientiousness: Organization and dependability. Extraversion: Sociability and enthusiasm. Agreeableness: Compassion and cooperativeness. Neuroticism: Emotional instability and negative emotions.

Personality Inventories

Tools like the NEO-PI-R and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) assess personality traits.