AP Review Flashcards (Biology, Chemistry, SAT Math)

A complete set of vocabulary flashcards covering key terms and concepts from AP Biology, AP Chemistry, and SAT Math as outlined in the lecture notes.

Cohesion

A property of water where water molecules stick to other water molecules.

Adhesion

A property of water where water molecules stick to other surfaces.

Hydrogen bonds

Weak bonds between water molecules that provide cohesion, high specific heat, and make ice less dense than liquid water.

pH

A measure of acidity defined as \text{-log[H^+]}, where acids are less than 7 and bases are greater than 7.

Carbohydrates

Macromolecules composed of monosaccharide monomers that provide quick energy.

Lipids

Macromolecules composed of glycerol and fatty acids that provide long-term energy and make up membranes.

Proteins

Macromolecules composed of amino acids that function as enzymes and provide structure and transport.

Nucleic acids

Macromolecules composed of nucleotides (DNA and RNA) that store and transmit genetic information.

Peptide bond

The specific type of chemical bond that links amino acids together in proteins.

Prokaryote

A type of cell characterized by the absence of a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, typically possessing circular DNA.

Eukaryote

A type of cell containing a nucleus, membrane-bound organelles, and linear chromosomes.

Mitochondria

The organelle responsible for producing ATP through the process of cellular respiration.

Chloroplast

The organelle where photosynthesis occurs to convert light energy into glucose.

Passive transport

The movement of molecules across a membrane from high to low concentration without the use of ATP.

Active transport

The movement of molecules from low to high concentration across a membrane, requiring the use of ATP.

Hypotonic

A solution where the concentration of solutes is lower outside the cell, causing water to enter and the cell to swell.

Hypertonic

A solution where the solute concentration is higher outside the cell, causing water to leave and the cell to shrink.

Enzymes

Biological catalysts that lower the activation energy of a reaction and are not consumed in the process.

Noncompetitive inhibitor

A molecule that binds to an enzyme at a site other than the active site, changing the enzyme's shape and function.

Calvin Cycle

The stage of photosynthesis occurring in the stroma that uses $CO_2$ to produce glucose.

Glycolysis

The initial step of cellular respiration occurring in the cytoplasm that yields a net of $2$ ATP.

Fermentation

An anaerobic process that occurs without oxygen, producing lactic acid or ethanol.

Negative feedback

A regulatory mechanism that returns a biological system to its normal state, such as blood glucose level regulation.

Positive feedback

A mechanism that amplifies a biological response, such as the process of childbirth.

Mitosis

A type of cell division resulting in two identical daughter cells for growth and repair.

Meiosis

A type of cell division that produces four haploid gametes and introduces genetic variation.

Genotype

The genetic makeup of an organism, represented by letters like $AA$ or $Aa$.

Phenotype

The observable physical traits or appearance of an organism.

Central Dogma

The process of genetic information flow: DNA $\rightarrow$ RNA $\rightarrow$ Protein.

Transcription

The process where RNA polymerase creates an RNA strand based on a DNA template.

Translation

The process occurring at the ribosome where mRNA codons are read to assemble amino acids into proteins.

PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)

A biotechnology tool used to amplify or make many copies of a specific DNA sequence.

Natural selection

The evolutionary mechanism where individuals with advantageous traits survive and reproduce more successfully.

Fitness

A term in evolution referring to an organism's reproductive success.

Hardy-Weinberg Equations

Mathematical formulas ($p + q = 1$ and $p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1$) used to model allele and genotype frequencies in a stable population.

Carrying capacity (K)

The maximum population size that an environment can sustain over time.

Primary succession

Ecological succession that begins in an environment where no soil exists.

Mole

A unit representing $6.022 \times 10^{23}$ particles, used to measure the amount of a substance.

Atomic Number

The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

VSEPR (Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion)

A model used to predict the three-dimensional geometry of molecules based on electron repulsion.

Intermolecular Forces (IMF)

The forces of attraction between molecules, ranked from weakest to strongest: London dispersion, dipole-dipole, and hydrogen bonding.

Ideal Gas Law

The equation $PV = nRT$, where $R = 0.0821\,L\cdot atm/mol\cdot K$.

Le Châtelier's Principle

The principle stating that an equilibrium system will shift to counteract a stress, such as a change in concentration, temperature, or pressure.

Endothermic

A chemical process that absorbs heat from its surroundings, characterized by a positive change in enthalpy ($+\Delta H$).

Oxidation

The part of a redox reaction involving the loss of electrons.

Slope-intercept form

The equation of a line written as $y = mx + b$, where $m$ is the slope and $b$ is the y-intercept.

Quadratic Formula

A formula used to solve for $x$ in quadratic equations: $x = \frac{-b \pm \sqrt{b^2 - 4ac}}{2a}$.

Discriminant

The value derived from $b^2 - 4ac$ that determines the number and type of solutions for a quadratic equation.

SOHCAHTOA

A mnemonic for right-triangle trigonometry where $\sin = \frac{\text{opposite}}{\text{hypotenuse}}$, $\cos = \frac{\text{adjacent}}{\text{hypotenuse}}$, and $\tan = \frac{\text{opposite}}{\text{adjacent}}$.