Unit 6 - Thinking, Language, and Intelligence

Cognition

mental activity associated with processing, understanding, and communicating information

How do we think?

formation of connections in the brain

thinking as behavior

mental imagery

concept formation

Formation of Connections In The Brain

our ability to think depends on biological connections formed in our brains through experience in the environment

Thinking as Behavior

thoughts are behaviors that are so small that they cannot be observed

Mental Imagery

we can create mental pictures which we can manipulate similar to “real life” objects

Concept Formation

we can form mental representations of a group or category

Concept

a mental grouping of objects, events, and/or people that tend to share features

Schemata

complex groupings of concepts

Types of Concepts

artificial/rule governed

natural/prototypes

hierarchical/theory-based

Artificial/Rule Governed Concepts

defined by specific rules or criteria

(ex: a triangle)

Natural Concepts/Prototypes

based on common characteristics shared by most members of a category

(ex: a bird)

Hierarchical/Theory-Based

organized in levels, where general categories break down into more specific ones

(ex: vehicle → car, bus, bike)

Basic Level Concepts

learned first

(ex: car, bus, bike)

Higher- and Lower-Order Concepts

added later

(ex: vehicle)

Language

communication using symbols

Attributes of a Language

generativity

specialization

arbitrariness

displacement

novelty

Generativity

unlimited new sentences can be created

Specializaiton

language is specifically for communication

Arbitrariness

words don’t have obvious connections to their meanings

Displacement

language can be generated without particular stimulus; and can refer to past/future experiences

Novelty

new ideas and sentences can be created and understood by others

Parts of a Language

phoneme

morpheme

grammar

Phoneme

smallest sounds that make up words

(ex: /k/, /æ/, and /t/ → cat)

Morpheme

smallest parts of words that carry meaning

(ex: cats → ‘cat’ and ‘s’)

Grammar

rules for combining sounds → meaningful words → meaningful sentences

Parts of Grammar

syntax

semantics

Syntax

rules for arranging words in sentences

(ex: subject + verb + object)

Semantics

meaning of words and sentences

(ex: the dog chased the ball VS the dog chased the car)

Vocal Dialogues

turn-taking in infants

Stages of Language Acquisition

phonation

cooing/gooing

babbling

expansion

canonical

contraction

one-word

telegraphic

Phonation Stage

birth - 2 months

basic sounds like crying; eventually quasivowel sounds

(ex: newborn crying to express hunger)

Cooing/Gooing Stage

2 - 4 months

hard consonant sounds

(ex: “goo goo” or “coo coo”)

Babbling Stage

4 - 14 months

create syllables

(ex: “ba-ba” with no meaning)

Expansion Stage

4 - 7 months

more varied sounds; learn to modulate voice

Canonical Stage

7 - 10 months

reduplicated babbling

(ex: “dadadada” or “babababa”)

Contraction Stage

10 - 14 months

narrow use of phonemes to only native language; development of prosody (rhythm and pace of language); use of gestures

One-Word Stage

14 - 20 months

one word is used to express entire ideas

(ex: milk → i want milk)

Telegraphic Speech

21 months

stringing key words to convey meaning

(ex: “want cookie” or “go park”)

Overgeneralization

children tend to overgeneralize rules until they learn exceptions

(ex: when using plurals, a child may add a ‘s’ to words that are exceptions, such as mice)

Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

the knowledge of grammar is innate; we were biologically prepared to organize language into rule-governed meaningful units

Whorf’s Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis

disproven; one’s language influenced how one perceived the world

Intelligence

difficult to define; abstract reasoning, problem solving, acquire knowledge, language, math skills, mental speed, etc.

Lumpers

believe that intelligence is one general ability

Important Lumper(s)

Charles Spearman; general intelligence ability → ‘g’

Splitters

believe that there are several different kinds of intelligence that are relatively independent

Important Splitter(s)

Cattel & Horn’s fluid and crystallized intelligence

Gardner’s multiple intelligences

Sternberg’s triarchic theory

Cattel and Horn’s Fluid Intelligence

ability to think and reason quickly; decreases with age

Cattel and Horn’s Crystallized Intelligence

knowledge and skills gained from experience and education; increases with age

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

linguistic/verbal

logical/mathematical

spatial

musical

bodily-kinesthetic

interpersonal

intrapersonal

naturalistic

spiritual/existential (?)

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

analytical/componential intelligence

practical/contextual intelligence

creative/experiential intelligence

Analytical/Componential Intelligence

the ability to solve problems, think logically, and analyze information; “book smarts”

Practical/Contextual Intelligence

the ability to deal with everyday tasks and challenges; common sense; “street smarts”

Creative/Experiential Intelligence

thinking in new and innovative ways; learning from mistakes

Emotional Intelligence

the ability to understand one’s own emotions and other's and use it in a culturally appropriate manner

Brain Damage

when the cerebral cortex is damaged, individuals show difficulties in specific areas of cognitive functioning, but not others

Savant Syndrome

individuals with intellectual disabilities who show superior ability in one intellectual realm

(ex: music, art, language, math)

Test Construction

standardization

norms

reliability

validity

Standardization

the procedure for testing is standard for every person taking and scoring the test

Norms

the standards set by the representative group of people that the test’s averages are based on

Reliability

the test scores for an individual must be dependable, stable, and consistent over time

Types of Reliability

test-retest

split-half

Test-Retest Reliability

establish consistency by giving the test to the same subjects multiple times

Split-Half Reliability

establish consistency by diving the test in half (usually odds/evens) and comparing performance on one half with the other half

Validity

the test must measure what it says it is measuring

Types of Validity

concurrent

predictive

Concurrent Validity

compares a test’s results to another test measuring the same thing, at the same time

Predictive Validity

how well a test predicts future performance or outcomes

Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale

first intelligence test

mental age/chronological age

Mental Age

level of intellectual functioning; measured by standard tests

Chronological Age

actual age since birth

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

Lewis Terman

mental age/chronological age x 100

normal intelligence is a score of 100

Deviation IQs

how far a person’s score on the test deviates from the national average; based on the normal curve

Intelligence Tests Today

Stanford-Binet Scale

Wechsler’s Intelligence Scales

Stanford-Binet Scale

primarily verbal scales; tends to be more predictive for children

Wechsler’s Intelligence Scales

verbal and performance scales; designed for adults and adolescents, and children

IQ Score Influences

physical state factors

anxiety/fear

social-economic status

cultural strictures on appropriate behavior

English as a second language (USA)

educational opportunities/values

Intelligence Influences

brain/skull size

processing speed

brain function

genetics

environment

Brain/Skull Size

brain-to-body mass ratios are somewhat predictive of intelligence; a dense frontal cortex → higher intelligence

Processing Speed

process info more quickly and efficiently → higher intelligence

Brain Function

use brain less; brain is more efficient → higher intelligence

Genetics

if an adoptive child resembles their biological parents behavior, it is assumed that genetics have a strong influence

Environment

if an adoptive child resembles their adoptive parents behavior, it is assumed that the environment has a strong influence

Learning Disabilities

dysgraphia

dyslexia

Dysgraphia

a condition that makes it hard to write clearly and legibly

(ex: may struggle with handwriting, spelling, and putting thoughts into written words)

Dyslexia

a condition that affects reading

(ex: difficulty reading, spelling, or pronouncing words)