unit 2: cognition

perception

process of interpreting the information we obtain through our five senses

bottom-up processing

when the stimuli or experience is complex and not familiar

example: building understanding from scratch, using only what you see, hear, touch, etc

top-down processing

when you use prior knowledge and experiences to interpret information. helps us process things in a quick manner
example: proof-reading a paper you wrote

schemas

mental frameworks that organize and interpret information based on prior knowledge and experiences
example: everyone knows what you do at a birthday party, since you have been to them before

perceptual sets

a mental shortcut your brain uses to quickly interpret what you’re experiencing, based on your past experiences, beliefs, culture, or context

gestalt psychology

we perceive things as whole patterns, not just a bunch of separate pieces. our brains naturally organize info into meaningful groups.

relative size

objects closer to us appear larger while objects farther away appear smaller

monocular cues

depth cues that require one eye and help us perceive depth on flat or two-dimensional surfaces

binocular cues

depth cues that require both eyes that help you perceive distance and depth in the visual field

texture and gradient

objects that are clear, in focus, and full of detail than objects that lack details and appear more blurry

linear perspective

when parallel lines appear to connect at a point in the distance, which helps use understand our positioning and depth

interposition

when objects are blocked by another object they are most likely farther away, while that are not blocked are closer

stroboscopic movement

the visual effect of creating the illusion of movement through a sequence of still images

phi phenomenon

when lights blink on and off in a sequence, making it look like object are moving, even though they are still

proximity

objects close together are perceived as a single group, while objects far apart are perceived as separate entities

similarity (gestalt psychology)

suggests objects that are similar in appearance are often perceived as belonging together

closure (gestalt psychology)

when our brain subconsciously fills in missing information when viewing a familiar but incomplete object

continuation (gestalt psychology)

addresses why our eyes naturally follow continuous lines or paths
example: seeing an exit sign with an arrow

perceptual constancy

your brain knows that objects stay the same, even if their appearance changes (like size, shape, or color) depending on distance, lighting, or angle

shape constancy

perceiving an object’s shape as the same, even with it moves
example: closing or opening a door

autokinetic effect

when a still point of light in a dark environment appears to move

motion parallax

objects motioning closer to you appear to move quickly, while those that are farther away seem to move slower
example: when you look out a car window, cars seem to go really fast but landscapes and clouds appear to slowly moving

concepts

mental categories that help us organize and understand the world
example: dog breeds, fruits, vehicles

prototypes

the most typical or best example of a concept that comes to mind
example: the concept is ball, the prototype is basketball, baseball, etc

heuristic

quick strategies your brain uses to make fast decisions or solve problems, does not always guarantee accuracy, but they save time and effort

representative heuristic

a shortcut in which you compare something to see how much it fits a prototype

availability heuristic

making judgements based on how easily availiable examples come to mind
example: you hear about shark attacks on the news, so you think they’re super common, but they’re actually very rare

gambler's fallacy

the belief that past events in a random sequence affect future events
example: "If I flip a coin and get heads five times in a row, the next flip is more likely to be tails."

sunk-cost fallacy

when people continue an endeavor because of already invested resources (time, money, effort), even if it's no longer the best option
example: staying at a bad movie just because you've already paid for the ticket.

divergent thinking

when a person explores many possible solutions
example: listing all the possible uses for a paperclip

convergent thinking

focusing on finding a single, correct solution to a problem
example: solving a math problem

functional fixedness

limits a person to using an object in only its traditional way

example: using a hammer only for driving nails, rather than as a doorstop

mental set

the tendency to approach problems in a way that has been successful in the past, but may not be effective in solving new problems.
specific to problem solving. can limit our creativity

parallel processing

the brain's ability to process multiple pieces of information simultaneously.
example: while driving, you watch the road, listen to music, and steer all at the same time.

priming

when exposure to something influences your response to something else, often without you realizing it
example: seeing "ocean" makes you faster at completing "sh__e" as "shore", your brain was unconsciously prepped.

framing effect

refers to how information is presented, influencing our decisions and judgements

explicit memory

memory of facts and events that one can consciously recall and describe
example: remembering your birthday or what you studied for a test

implicit memory

information or skills we learn without being fully aware of it, such as skills or habits
example: riding a bike

episodic memory

type of explicit memory for specific events and personal experiences
example: first day of school

short-term memory

holds a small amount of information for a brief period (about 15–30 seconds)

long-term memory

has an unlimited capacity and can store information for long periods of time. includes facts, skills, and experiences.

working memory

also known as short-term memory, where it can hold a limited amount of information for a short period of time, also processes information

long-term potentiation (LTP)

a long-lasting increase in signal strength between neurons after repeated stimulation; helps form memories.
example: practicing flashcards

automatic processing

information is gathered with little or no conscious effort like space, time, and frequency.

flashbulb memory

a crystal-clear, specific memory of an emotionally significant event
example: remembering what you were doing during 9/11

encoding

getting information to our brain and finding meaning.
short term memory → long term memory

visual encoding

when we encode information based on visual elements, such as images or spatial relationships.

acoustic encoding

the process of encoding information through sound, particularly the sound of words or auditory patterns.

method of loci

a mnemonic device that helps you remember information by relating it with specific locations in a familiar space

chunking

an encoding strategy that involves grouping individual pieces of information into larger units
example: 149217385 becomes easier if you group them as 149, 217, 385.

spacing effect

distributing learning over time leads to better long-term retention as it improves memory consolidation

serial position effect

the tendency to remember the first (primacy effect) and last (recency effect) items in a list better than the middle ones

primacy effect

tendency to remember items at the beginning better. occurs because early items receive more rehearsal and processing

recency effect

tendency to remember items at the end of a list better. occurs because it’s still fresh

sensory memory

the immediate, but very brief recording of sensory information

iconic memory

type of memory that stores visual information for a very brief period
example: seeing a sparkler’s light trail, it’s your brain briefly holding the image after it’s gone

echoic memory

type of memory that stores auditory information for a brief period, lets you recall sounds shortly after hearing.

phonological loop

part of working memory: helps us hold and work with sounds and words in our minds
example: repeating a phone number in a loop or something we just heard

visuospatial sketchpad

part of working memory: handles visual and spatial information. it helps with tasks like visualizing objects and their location
example: mentally rearranging furniture in a room

maintenance rehearsal

when you repeatedly go over information so you don’t forget it and maintain it

elaborative rehearsal

when you connect new information to something you already know, which makes it easier to remember

retrograde amnesia

when a person can no longer retrieve past information, could happen because of brain injury or trauma

anterograde amnesia

when a person can no longer form new memories

infantile amnesia

when an adult can’t remember personal experiences from their early years of life

alzheimer's disease

progressive brain disorder that causes memory loss, confusion, and thinking difficulties

recall

retrieving information without any cues or hints

recognition

identifying information when you see it again and recognize it, using cues
example: picking the right answer on a multiple choice test

context-dependent memory

you remember something better when you’re in the same environment where you learned it

mood-congruent memory

when you’re more likely to remember memories that match your current mood
example: finding it easier to remember positive memories when you’re happy

state-dependent memory

you recall information better when you're in the same physical or mental state as when you learned it
example: when you are sick, you’re more likely to remember the time when you were last sick

testing effect

where people remember information better if they previously tested themselves on it, rather than just studying it

metacognition

awareness of your own thought process; can guide with better review and remembering

forgetting curve

shows time plays a major role in forgetting, with most forgetting happening soon after learning it

proactive interference

when old memories interfere with the ability to remember new information
example: remembering your old address when you try to remember your new one

retroactive interference

when new memories interfere with the ability to recall old information
example: after learning a new language, you can forget words from a previously learned language

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

the feeling of knowing something but being unable to recall it at the moment
example: when know how a song goes but can’t remember what it’s called

repression

helps to defend against difficult emotional thoughts or experiences.

misinformation effect

altering a memory with misleading or false information, causing that memory to be distorted

source amnesia

when a person can remember the information but cannot recall where or how they learned it

constructive memory

fills in memory gaps from actual memories with imagined details, creating false memories

memory consolidation

the next step after encoding; how your brain strengthens and stabilizes memory over time (often during sleep)

general intelligence (g)

underlies all cognitive abilities, meaning people who are good at one mental task are likely to be good at others

flynn effect

refers to the rise in IQ scores over time, with each generation outperforming the last

achievement tests

designed to measure what someone knows and/ or has learned at a specific point in time
example: taking the bitchass ap psych exam

aptitude tests

aim to predict future performance
example: sat or act

fixed mindset

believes that intelligence is something you are born with and cannot change
example: people who give up easily when faced with challenges

growth mindset

believe that intelligence can be grown and developed through effort and learning

construct validity

the extent to which a test constructs what it is intended to measure
example: a math test should actually measure math skills

predictive validity

the extent to which a test predicts future performance or outcomes
example: a high school entrance exam should predict how well students perform in high school

test-retest reliability

refers to the consistency of test results over time when a person takes the same test again

split-half reliability

refers to the consistency of results within the test itself, such as comparing scores from two halves of the same test
example: if you split an 100 question test into two 50 question sections, both halves should have similar results for a reliable test

stereotype lift

when people perform better because they are aware of positive stereotypes about their group

crystallized intelligence

the ability to use knowledge and skills gained through experience and education
increases as we get older

fluid intelligence

the ability to quickly reason and breakdown abstract problems
decreases as we get older

selective attention

when we focus on a stimulus and tune out other stimuli in our environment
example: having a conversation in a loud party

cocktail party effect

the ability to focus on a specific conversation or sound in a noisy setting

change blindness

a type of inattentional blindness where we fail to notice changes in our environment

inattentional blindness

the failure to notice a stimuli in our visual field due to our attention being focused on something else

apparent motion/movement

when we see motion even though nothing is actually moving

assimilation

when we add new information into existing schemas, does not alter it

example: calling a zebra a horse