Civil rights movement in usa

2.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT background of the civil rights movement

13th amendment abolished slavery

14th amendment established citizenship

15th amendment vote regardless of race

civil rights act 1866 established equal employment rights

1877 Rutherford B Hayes as president withdrew federal troops and changed 14th amendment so each state had own control

many AA forced to sharecrop and peonage, work to pay off debt

the KKK

orginially secret then vigilante group against reconstruction in 1869, attacking AA and WA who were sympathetic

enforcement acts of 1870 and 71 cracked down on Klan activity and lost reason during peonage and end of reconstruction

1915 reappeared as an anti-catholic, anti-semeitc and anti-african group with the film ‘birth of a nation’ which glorified pre-reconstructution KKK and acted as propaganda

faded because of infighting and public disapproval

wilmington race riots

caused by defeat of white segregationalsit government by a coalitin of White popular party and African American Republic in 1896 local election

in response appealed to fear of black males saying women were under a constant rape threat

stuffed ballot boxes 1898 to assure victory, removed AA officials, shot at AA killing 25

atlanta, georgia race riots 1906

mayoral electorial candidates portrayed each other as pandering to AA, black males allegedly attacking white females, mobs attacked AA and destroyed buisnesses

next day AA armed themselves but were still attacked with deaths c50

tulsa race riots

allegedly occured when black man stepped on white womans shoe and was seen as a rape attempt, mob formed

attacked 50-300 AA, more than 1000 homes, entire AA neighbourhood in Tulsa burned down

elaine, arkansas race riots 1919

sherrifs approached armed AA guarding union meeting, shots fired, 1 policeman died and sherrif injured

sherrif led a mob of 500-1000 white men to arrest the men. 300 AA arrested, 122 charged

voting after reconstruction in the South

during reconstruction, AA in formed confederate states could vote, run for and hold office

after changes to 15th amendment and enforcement act of 1870 AA were threatened and attacked when going to polls

stuffing of ballot boxes, failure to count AA votes or counting as white votes were common

poll tax introduced to prevent poor AA from voting: pay to cast vote

literacy test introduced: disqualified many AA at hands on baised officials, ½ of all AA were illiterate

but poll tax and literacy test could disqualify white voters

introduced the grandfather clause: if your grandfather or great grandfather could vote, so could you even if you could not pay taxes or pass literacy test

democratic party who dominated the south made whites only membership

federal system is where central government with consitution and laws and 50 states with own constitution and laws meant that the Jim Crow laws could vary from state to state

impact of ww2

during ww2 millions of AA worked as soilders and defense workers

before US entered war a march on Washington was threatened against discrimination in defense factories and armed forces

roosevelt ordered end to discrimination in the defense industry

as AA soilders returned after the war to a segregated country felt as though they returning to racist state similar to what they had been fighting against and felt they deserved to be treated as equals

harry truman ordered desegregation in armed forces in 1948

NAACP intrest in brown vs board and desegregation of schools

NAACP started using courts to challenge if seperate but equal was actually equal

studies revealed spending per white pupil x3 greater than for black pupils, black educators paid less, unequal facilities, school year for AA shorter

NAACP wanted to start with graduate schools because would not disrupt local populaion or pressure judges but would point out obvious inequalities

murray vs pearson 1935

donald murray applied to university of maryland school of law 1935 but application was thrown out without looking

told to apply to Princess Anne Academy which was only black post-secondary school availible in Maryland and no law course

went to court june 1935 with Charles Houston and Thurgood Marshall, court ruled in favour of Murray

PAA exposed as offering education below level of graduate school and school forced to accept him

was a success but only in maryland and only in graduate schools to apply to all of US had to reach US supreme court

to do this had to pick cases were sure they were going to loose and appeal

sweatt vs painter 1950

sweatt wanted to go to texas school of law

texas had built seperate school for black students but 1950 supreme court ruled even if facilities equal the experience was not equal requiring interactions and connections so no school could be equal

brown vs board introduction

four elementary school children.

case was argued twice before the supreme court justices, first in spring 1953 but could not reach a descision so both sides ordered to present arguments in 1953 autumn

during summer 1953 a justice died and was replaced by previous govenor of California, Earl Warren, as Chief Justice

Warren was a republican and rival for Eisenhower’s party leadership

became known as most progressive leader of Supreme Court in US history

after reargument several justice’s positions changed with Warren leading discussions

may 1954 supreme court ruled unanimously that segregation by race in education was unequal

consequences of brown vs board

any legal support for jim crow laws was undermined

many southern states began organising resistance

supreme court did not at first say how schools were meant to desgregate

in brown II which answered that question, supreme court ruled schools should desegregate with ‘all deliberate speed’

was interpreted differently e.g. florida made each student make a formal request to local school board and if denied could appeal

eisenhower said no date to be determined when desegregation had to be done by

all but 1 of 11 conferderate states passed laws allowinng segregated schools

but many school districts in north began desegregating

massive resistance in virginia

virgina called to interpose (state government place themselves between federal gov and state citizens if though fed gov exceeded constitutional powers) to nullify supreme court rulings

govenor Thomas B Stanley created Stanley plan against desegregation of schools

included automatic closure of any school that integrated even if ordered to by federal courts and could be reopened if only for white students, applications for pupil placement under control of state not local authorities

new govenor of Virginia, Linsay Almond january 1958 who supported massive resistance - 3 schools ordered to integrate and almond shut them

january 19th 1959 virginia supreme court and a federal court ruled that the closing of public schools violated the US constitution (14th amendement)

Almond created new Perrow Plan: parents picked the school for the studes and had to appeal to the Pupil Placement Board

by 1964 only 5% of AA students attended schools with white children

the Little Rock 9, Arkansas 1957

in arkansas the blossom plan allowed the superintendant to choose the AA students to integrate in previously white only schools

of 80 applicants picked 9 for the 1957-58 school year

govenor of arkansas ordered arkansas national guard to central high school to prevent national violence by surrounding school to prevent the entry of the little rock 9

still tried to attend the school 5th september 1957

white mobs supported the national guard preventing the entry

20th september federal judge ordered to stop the national guard preventing entry and allow the enrollement of the little rock 9

mob outside school as they entered, police later removed the students

eisenhower ordered 1200 troops from the 101st airborne division to escort the little rock 9 into school

results of the little rock 9

faced constant harrasment

white students who befriended the 9 also abused and attacked

not allowed to participiate in extracurricular activites

montogomery bus boycott background

started december 1955

when rosa parks arrested 1st december 1955 for refusing to give up seat to white woman

had already been a series or arrests for this

rosa parks had been civil rights activist for 2 decades

1932 parks and her husband founded NAACP montogomery division

1943 had also refused to get off the bus after paying as policy was pay at front and AA get back on the back

montogomery bus boycott events

WPC organised 1 day boycott and set up meeting with NAACP to coordinate support for boycott

made 3 demand with what they wanted to achieve: AA treated with courtesy, no reserved areas on transport, hiring of AA drivers for mostly AA routes

boycott 5th december, almost no AA roder bus but no response from city and parks still fined

montgomery improvement association MIA formed with MLK as president to oversee longer boycott

began december 13th and extended to january 1956

city announced desegregation would be enforced and any driver that did not would be arrested

5th june montgomery federal court 1956 ruled alabama bus segregation laws violated 14th amendment

US supreme court agreed 13th nov

boycott continued until city leaders agreed to implement court order

20th december city leaders agreed to end segregation on buses

impact of montgomery bus boycott

segregationalist used violence to intimidate passengers and boycott leadrs

four churches and 2 homes bombed 10th january 1957

transformed AA fear against white segregationalists into defiance

showed united community could challenge jim crow laws sucessfully

elevated MLK as national figure

promoted non violent resistance

freedom rides introduction

1960 boyton vs Virgina US supreme court made segregated interstate transport and facilities prohibited

two mixed groups of white and AA would travel from Washington DC to New Orleans, Louisiana

believed lack of compliance and defiance by cities would force JFK to act

lack of support for civil rights came from cold war where constant fear and overreaction

emerging middle class of white americans wanted to live suburban dream and ignore racial and economic disparities across the country

Alabama part 1

13 freedom riders, 6 white and 7 black began 4th may 1961

MLK met them 13th May

leader James Farmer had to leave to go to his fathers’ funeral

14th May as greyhound bus pulled into terminal in Anniston, Alabama, 30-50 white men with sticks and metal bars surrounded bus. police had been ordered to stay away

bus kept driving to Birmingham followed by 40 cars

at side of highway bus stopped because flat tyres, driver walked away

mob tried to storm the bus. passenger with gun kept them at bay for few minutes

was really an undercover member of Alabama highway patrol put there by governor john patterson, segregationalist, who didn’t want negative mob publicity but wanted white americans to think he was supporting them

incendiary bomb thrown into bus, filled with smoke, passengers forced to leave and attacked and beaten

the patrol man said he would shoot the next person who attacked anyone

alabama part 2

second trailways bus drove onto Birmingham. KKK mob of 30 men with chains, pipes and bats attacked first reporters and news photographers and freedom riders and bystanders

police arrived after 15 minutes

riders took refuge in church of reverend fred shuttlesworth who prevened police arresting group for violating segregation laws

publically JFK called for calm, privately said Freedom Riders should stop

drivers from bus companies refused to continue

flew from Alabama to New Orleans even after a bomb threat

riders had hoped US government would be forced to defend civil right activists and allow them to continue with federal protection but administration would not act

second freedom riders introduction

the studen non violent coordinating committee, SNCC led by John Lewis and Diane Nash organsied second freedom ride

aware of the danger, believed first freedom riders did not understant the risk and signed wills before they left

JKF administration contacted SNCC and demanded to stop but they continued

Alabama second freedom riders

attacked in montogomery

MLK and others held rally in Church that was attacked with tear gas the same night

Robert Kennedy (attorney general) called in 500 unarmed federal marshals to protect and ordered Govenor Patterson to call national guard to establish order

JFK told them to pause, declined as now had white house and national attention

MLK invited to join second time, declined again saying was on probabtion but so were many FR and so lost respect

deal made with governor patterson to provide protection until entered Mississippi

Mississippi second freedom riders

JFK made deal with Mississippi senator saying could arrest freedom riders if protected from physical violence

riders arrested

hundreds of untrained freedom riders travelled to mississippi until prisons crowded with 300 FR

september 22 interstate commerce commision (ICC) banned segregation on interstate travel

achieved specific goal of desegregating interstate travel but not to gain to support from white house

caused split betweem active confrontation by SNCC and the leadership NAACP and SCLC

Freedom Summer 1964

aimed to combine voter education, registration and politcal activism as well as create Freedom Schools to teach literacy and civics to children and adults

fully integrated project: partly because if white middle class americans were attacked, federal government would provide protection and press would give more coverage to white deaths than black deaths

41 freedom schools created more than 3000 AA youths attended

taught literacy and maths, AA history, leadership skills as well as how to understand mississippi constitution as was part of test

17000 applied to vote, only 1600 accepted

leaders and participants labeled communists

although few successes in mississippi to register voters, showed the need for federal enforcement of voters rights

civil rights act 1964

11th june 1964 JFK proposed bill but was assassinated november 22, Lydon B Johnson new president

Title II about the banning of discrimination in public facilities was so controversial was seperated from the bill

gender was made a protected class with age, ethnicity and religion by Senator Howard Smith but unsure now if to forward womens’ rights or make the bill fial

passed in house 2nd July 1964 289 to 126 - 90% of southern legislators against and 90% northern legislators for

adressed voting righs, employment, school desegregation, federally funded programmes, enforcements, public accomodations

required buiness to serve customers regardless of race but had to be involved in interstate commerce (most were)

federal funds could be denied to any government agency that discrimintated

outlawed unequal practice of voting requirements

run up to the voting rights act 1965

january 1955 SCLC with MLK opened voting rights campaign in Selma, alabama

march from selma to montogomery after the fatal shooting of a black man by alabama state troopers during another march

sherrif ordered white males deputised, selma police and alabama patrol men responded to march with tear gas, clubs, riders on horseback with bullwhips, injuring 50

became known as bloody sunday

extent the white segregationalists would go to was shown, putting presure on white house, Johnson gave speech saying ‘only an american problem’ and quoting a popular protest song

passed by lyndon b johnson

voting rights act 1965

passed 6th august 1965

outlawed literacy test and directed US Department of Justice to challenge poll taxes

gave attorney general power to assign federal examiners where less than half AA registered to vote

within 2 years more than half of southern AA registered to vote

MLK jr

doctorate in systematic theology from university of boston 1955

led montgomery bus boycott and here emerged as key leader

created and elected president of SCLC

famous for speeches lik ‘letter from a birmingham jail’ (conditions in jim crow south, ethical reasons behind his and SCLC protest, advocated total inclusion of all AA in every day life) and ‘i have a dream’ speech (call to justice, pointed out a goal of racial, religious and ethical integration)

had contacts and influence in both Kennedy and Johnson adminstrations

was questioned by younger leaders of SNCC on reliance on nonviolent protests and advocay beyond civil rights

other leaders voiced concern media paid more attention to MLK than issues themselves

Malcom X

focused on conditions of African Americans in north

converted to nation of islam during time in prison for armed robbery

NOI preached radical solidarity and racial superiority of AA but also importance of economic self reliance which appealed to northern AA ghettos where unemployment high and schools run down and overcrowded

was the editor of the Messenger, NOI newspaper

leader of a mosque in harlem, new york where he gave speeches about self reliance, faith and black nationalism with white enemy

membership increased by 50,000 and brought about black pride movement

opposition from civil rights leaders: said speeches drew attention away from critical issues and had no solutions to the problems he mentioned

1964 went on a pilgrimage to Mecca, changed his name and spoke in favour of pan africanism still black nationalism and self defence against violence

formed organisation of afro-american unity: cooperation and militancy by supportin any action by any group but still advocated fighting over talking

lyndon b johnson

during 1950s had opposed and weakend civil rights legislation

became president after kennedy assasinated and his civil rights bill stalled in US sentate

main focus of the government was on foriegn policy: cold war, nuclear bombs, vietnam bu Johnson also concerned with poverty and civil rights

passed civil rights act 1964 and voting rights act 1965

urban riots demonstrated more legislation needed

began sending troops to stop the violence and rioting

passed civil rights act 1968 - fair housing act which banned discrimination in the sale and renting of homes

some argue only came to support civil rights at the end of a long career but was critical for passing federal legislation

national association for the advancement of coloured people NAACP

founded feb 1909 after race riot in illinois

purpose was to secure rights for all under 13, 14 and 15th amendments

fight against lynching prime area of advocacy

membership rose from 9000 1909 to 500,000 after WW2

legal work through NAACP leagal defense, led by Thurgood Marshall, future supreme court justice

led to brown vs board 1954

focused in the south

NAACP youth league organised sit ins

worked with other organisations to provide bail for freedom riders

included rosa parks, force behind LR9, Ella Baker (SNCC) and MLK

1964 joined COFO - council of federal organisations to help organise the freedom summer

seen as a more cautious as more radical organisations gained traction

southern christian leadership conference sclc

helped organise montogomery bus boycott as montgomery improvement association

suggested that the montgomery movement was expanded to other cities in south and so transitioned to become SCLC in february 1957

coordinated affiliated groups rather than directing a single large group

trained leaders in christian non violent resistance

nonviolent mass acting as strategy

1963 planned birmingham alabama campagain where lawsuits filed against state and local governments for maintianing segregated public facilities

began operation breadbasket 1962 to combat poverty by providing jobs in AA neighbourhoods

criticised for focus on non violence and after assassination of MLK the policy of black nationalism clashed with SCLC pacificist integrationalist philosophy

Student nonviolent coordinating comittee

established april 1960

member ella bakers served as NAACP director of branched in 1943, interim director of SCLC for more than two years

SCLC leadership wanted SNCC to be youth league but Baker wanted to be independent organisation

non violent direct action

combined with core to organise freedom rides as first major action under leadership of Diane Nash who refused request from Kennedy administration to stop

students attacked and jailed but did not stop and their courage encouraged others to jon SNCC

primary focus voter registration in rural south

as white supremacist violence continued into 1960s drew away from non violence as a philosophy

began exlcuding white americans from certain activities then expelled from organisation

1970 became black panther party

nation of islam

founded 1930 and combined black nationalism with unorthodox interpretation of islam to prepare and educate AA for struggle to take back the earth

founded private schools to educate AA in teachings as believed public schools designed to preserve white supremacy

believed racial seperatism necesarry for AA to gain rights and economic stablility; differed with all other cixil rights organisations

advocatted forceful self dedense

did not focus on campaigns, rather growth of membership

criticised by other groups for lack of action