2.1-2.3

Perception

The way we interpret and understand sensory information.

Bottom-up processing

The processing of sensory information as it enters the brain, without the influence of prior knowledge or expectations.

Top-down processing

The use of prior knowledge and expectations to interpret sensory information.

Schemas

Mental frameworks that help us organize and interpret information.

Perceptual sets

Readiness to perceive something in a particular way based on expectations.

Context

The surrounding information or environment that influences how we perceive something.

Cultural background

The cultural influences that shape how we interpret behaviors and events.

Gestalt psychology

A theory that explains how we tend to perceive whole objects rather than individual parts.

Closure

The tendency to complete incomplete images in our minds.

Figure-ground perception

The ability to distinguish an object from its background.

Proximity

The principle that objects that are close together tend to be perceived as a group.

Similarity

The principle that objects that share similar characteristics are perceived as related.

Attention

The mental process of focusing on specific information while ignoring other stimuli.

Selective attention

The process of focusing on one stimulus while filtering out others.

Cocktail party effect

The ability to focus on a single conversation in a noisy environment.

Inattentional blindness

Failing to notice unexpected stimuli while focusing on another task.

Change blindness

Failing to notice changes in a visual scene.

Binocular depth cues

Depth cues that require both eyes, such as retinal disparity and convergence.

Monocular depth cues

Depth cues that require only one eye, such as relative size and texture gradient.

Visual perceptual constancy

The brain's ability to perceive objects as stable despite changes in sensory input.

Apparent movement

The perception of movement when there is none, such as in animated images or the phi phenomenon.

Thinking

The mental process of manipulating information, including concepts, schemas, and mental images.

Concepts

Mental categories that help us group similar things.

Prototype

The best or most typical example of a concept.

Schemas

Mental frameworks that include expectations and associations about a category.

Assimilation

The process of incorporating new information into existing schemas without changing the schema.

Accommodation

The process of changing a schema to include new information.

Problem solving

The mental process of finding solutions to challenges.

Algorithm

A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a correct answer.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that simplify problem solving.

Representativeness heuristic

Judging something based on how well it matches a prototype.

Availability heuristic

Making decisions based on the most recent or memorable examples.

Decision making

The process of selecting a course of action from multiple alternatives.

Mental set

The tendency to approach problems in a particular way based on past experiences.

Priming

Exposure to certain stimuli influencing our perception or decision making.

Framing

The way information is presented, influencing decisions.

Gambler's fallacy

The belief that past events affect future probabilities in random events.

Sunk cost fallacy

Continuing to invest in something because of the time, money, or effort already spent.

Executive functioning

The mental skills that help us set goals, plan, and make decisions.

Divergent thinking

The ability to generate many possible solutions to a problem.

Convergent thinking

The ability to find a single correct solution to a problem.

Functional fixedness

The inability to see new uses for familiar objects, hindering creativity.

Explicit memory

Memory that can be consciously recalled, such as facts and personal experiences.

Episodic memory

A type of explicit memory involving personal experiences tied to specific times and places.

Semantic memory

A type of explicit memory involving facts and concepts not tied to personal experiences.

Implicit memory

Memory that influences behavior without conscious awareness.

Procedural memory

A type of implicit memory that involves knowledge of how to perform tasks, like riding a bike.

Prospective memory

Memory of future intentions, such as remembering to take medicine.

Long-term potentiation

The strengthening of neural connections through repeated activation, which aids memory.

Working memory model

A model that explains how information is temporarily held and processed.

Central executive

The part of working memory that directs attention and processes information.

Phonological loop

The component of working memory that handles verbal information.

Visual-spatial sketchpad

The component of working memory that processes visual and spatial information.

Multi-store model

A model that explains how information moves between different memory systems (sensory, short-term, long-term).

Sensory memory

Briefly holds raw sensory information.

Iconic memory

Visual memory that lasts less than a second.

Echoic memory

Auditory memory that lasts a few seconds.

Short-term memory

Holds a small amount of information for about 20 to 30 seconds. Without rehearsal, this information fades.

Long-term memory

Stores information indefinitely. This is where knowledge, experiences, and skills are kept for future use.

Automatic processing

Occurs without effort, such as remembering what you ate for breakfast.

Effortful processing

Requires focus and practice, like memorizing vocabulary words for AP Psychology.

Levels of processing model

A model suggesting that deeper levels of encoding lead to better memory retention.

Structural processing

The shallowest level of processing, focused on physical characteristics of information.

Phonemic processing

A deeper level of processing, focused on how something sounds.

Semantic processing

The deepest level of processing, focused on meaning and personal connections to the information.

Retinal disparity

The slight difference in the images perceived by each eye due to their different positions. The brain uses this difference to determine depth.

Convergence

The inward movement of the eyes when focusing on a nearby object. Greater convergence indicates a closer distance.

Relative clarity

Clearer and sharper objects appear closer, while hazy or blurred objects appear farther away.

Relative size

When two objects are known to be of similar size, the smaller one appears farther away.

Texture gradient

The gradual decrease in detail and texture as an object's surface recedes into the distance, creating a sense of depth.

Linear perspective

The appearance of parallel lines converging as they extend into the distance, creating the illusion of depth.

Interposition

The perception that an object blocking part of another object is closer than the one it partially obscures.

Visual Perceptual Constancy

The brain's ability to perceive objects as stable and unchanging despite variations in sensory input. For example, the color, shape, and size of objects remain constant despite changes in lighting or viewing angle.

Apparent Movement

When stationary objects are perceived as moving due to visual cues, such as a rapid succession of images or changes in position. The phi phenomenon is an example, where blinking lights in a row appear to move even though they are not.