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Photosynthesis
The process by which green plants and some other organisms use sunlight to synthesize foods with the help of chlorophyll.
Cellular Respiration
The metabolic process by which cells convert glucose and oxygen into energy (ATP), carbon dioxide, and water.
Nucleus
The membrane-bound organelle in eukaryotic cells that contains the genetic material.
Plasma Membrane
The semi-permeable membrane surrounding the cytoplasm of a cell.
Cell Wall
A rigid layer that gives structure and protection to plant cells, fungi, and certain bacteria.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
An organelle involved in protein and lipid synthesis; comes in rough (with ribosomes) and smooth (without ribosomes) forms.
Golgi Apparatus
An organelle that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for secretion.
Vesicle
A small membrane-bound sac that transports substances within a cell.
Cytoskeleton
A network of fibers that helps maintain cell shape and aids in cell movement.
Homeostasis
The process by which living organisms regulate their internal environment to maintain stable conditions.
Functions of Eukaryotic Organisms
Eukaryotic organisms perform various functions including growth, reproduction, metabolism, and response to environmental stimuli.
Cell Division in Eukaryotes
Eukaryotes divide through mitosis (for growth and repair) and meiosis (for sexual reproduction).
Metabolic Pathways in Eukaryotes
Eukaryotic cells utilize metabolic pathways like glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation to produce energy.
Types of Eukaryotic Organisms
Eukaryotic organisms include animals, plants, fungi, and protists, each with specialized functions.
Role of Organelles in Eukaryotic Cells
Organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts have specialized functions (energy production and photosynthesis respectively).
Cell Signaling in Eukaryotes
Eukaryotic cells communicate through signaling pathways, allowing them to respond to changes and coordinate functions.
Eukaryotic Reproduction
Eukaryotic organisms can reproduce both sexually (involving gametes) and asexually (through methods like budding and fission).
Function of Mitochondria
Mitochondria are responsible for producing ATP through cellular respiration.
Function of Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts carry out photosynthesis, converting sunlight into chemical energy.
Function of Ribosomes
Ribosomes synthesize proteins by translating messenger RNA (mRNA).
Function of Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
The ER synthesizes proteins (rough ER) and lipids (smooth ER), and is involved in detoxification.
Function of Golgi Apparatus
The Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for transport.
Function of Lysosomes
Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes that break down waste materials and cellular debris.
Function of Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes break down fatty acids and amino acids, and detoxify harmful substances.
Function of Vacuoles
Vacuoles store substances such as nutrients, waste products, and water in eukaryotic cells.
Function of Plasma Membrane
The plasma membrane regulates the movement of substances in and out of the cell.
Function of Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton provides structural support and aids in cell movement and division.
Fungal Diseases
Illnesses caused by pathogenic fungi that can affect plants, animals, and humans.
Mycosis
An infection caused by a fungus, which can be superficial, systemic, or subcutaneous.
Candidiasis
A fungal infection caused by Candida species, often affecting the mouth, throat, and genital area.
Aspergillosis
A disease caused by the Aspergillus fungus, affecting the respiratory system and sometimes systemic circulation.
Ringworm
A contagious skin infection caused by various fungi, characterized by a ring-shaped rash.
Histoplasmosis
A respiratory illness caused by inhaling spores of the fungus Histoplasma capsulatum.
Tinea
A group of fungal infections affecting the skin, scalp, or nails, commonly referred to by specific locations (e.g., tinea pedis for athlete's foot).
Sporotrichosis
A fungal infection caused by Sporothrix schenckii, typically affecting the skin through cuts or abrasions.
Cryptococcosis
A serious fungal infection caused by Cryptococcus species, often affecting immunocompromised individuals.
Fungal Spores
Reproductive structures that allow fungi to spread and cause infections.
Antifungal Medications
Drugs used to treat fungal infections by inhibiting the growth or reproduction of fungi.
Protist
A diverse group of eukaryotic microorganisms, which are mainly unicellular but can also be multicellular, including algae, protozoa, and slime molds.
Characteristics of Protozoa
Protozoa are single-celled eukaryotes that exhibit animal-like behaviors such as motility and feeding.
Nutrition in Protozoa
Protozoa obtain nutrients through various methods, including ingestion, absorption, and photosynthesis (in some cases).
Locomotion in Protozoa
Protozoa can move using structures like cilia, flagella, or pseudopodia.
Examples of Protozoa
Common examples include amoeba, paramecium, and Giardia.
Reproduction in Protozoa
Protozoa mainly reproduce asexually through binary fission, but some can reproduce sexually.
Habitat of Protozoa
Protozoa inhabit a variety of environments, including freshwater, marine, and soil ecosystems.
Role of Protozoa in Ecosystems
Protozoa play crucial roles in food webs and nutrient cycling, acting as both predators and prey.
Epidemiology of Protozoan Diseases
Some protozoa are pathogens that can cause diseases in humans, animals, and plants, such as malaria and amoebic dysentery.
Cell Structure of Protozoa
Protozoa typically have a flexible cell membrane and may possess specialized organelles for various functions.
Helminths
Parasitic worms that live in the body of their host, which can include flatworms, roundworms, and thorny-headed worms.
Nematodes
A type of roundworm that is a common helminth, affecting various hosts including humans.
Platyhelminthes
A phylum of flatworms that includes tapeworms and flukes, known for their flat bodies.
Trematodes
A class of flatworms known as flukes, which are typically parasites in the bodies of their hosts.
Cestodes
A class of parasitic flatworms, commonly known as tapeworms, that live in the intestines of their hosts.
Life Cycle of Helminths
Helminths typically undergo complex life cycles that often involve multiple hosts and developmental stages.
Symptoms of Helminth Infections
Common symptoms can include abdominal pain, diarrhea, fatigue, and weight loss.
Diagnosis of Helminth Infections
Diagnosis is often made through stool samples, blood tests, and imaging techniques.
Treatment of Helminth Infections
Helminth infections are typically treated with antiparasitic medications, such as albendazole or mebendazole.
Prevention of Helminth Infections
Preventive measures include good hygiene, proper sanitation, and cooking food thoroughly.
Virus
A microscopic infectious agent that can only replicate inside a living host cell.
Viral Structure
Viruses consist of genetic material (DNA or RNA) encased in a protein coat called a capsid; some have an lipid envelope.
Viral Replication
The process by which a virus makes copies of itself within a host cell.
Viral Lifecycle
The stages a virus undergoes from attachment to a host cell to release of new virions.
Zoonotic Viruses
Viruses that are transmitted from animals to humans, such as HIV and Ebola.
Antiviral Drugs
Medications used to treat viral infections by inhibiting the virus's ability to replicate.
Vaccines
Biological preparations that provide acquired immunity to a particular viral infection.
Oncoviruses
Viruses that can cause cancer through the integration of their genetic material into the host genome.
RNA Viruses
Viruses that have RNA as their genetic material, such as influenza and SARS-CoV-2.
DNA Viruses
Viruses that have DNA as their genetic material, such as herpesvirus and papillomavirus.
Viral Mutation
The changes in the virus's genetic material that can lead to new viral strains, affecting transmissibility and virulence.
Viral Pathogenicity
The ability of a virus to cause disease in its host.
