Gentics Final

Sterile Technique

measures taken to prevent the spread of pathogens from the environment to the patient by eliminating all micro-organisms in that environment

Velvet Stamp

A method used to transfer bacteria onto different media by stamping the surface onto the colonies on one plate and stamping again in another to find a missing colonies

"F" Factor

Fertility Factor aka. plasmid. An episome that can copy itself from 1 cell to another & is prone to recombination.

Episome

A genetic element that can exist either as a plasmid or as part of the bacterial chromosome.

Conjugation

The transfer & replication of the F-Factor

TraA

Pilin

TraJ

Transcription factor from TraM & TraY/TraI

TraM

DNA transfer

TraY/TraI

nicks F factor at ori T

TraS/TraT

Exclusion factors

Ori T

Origin of Transfer causes cells to fuse in a mating bridge, directs the separation of the two strands and sends one to the recipient and keeps one in the donor, now both cells have a plasmid.

Ori V

origin of replication

F+ Cell

Bacterial cells that possess a chromosome and F factor

Hfr Cell

a cell with an F factor integrated into its genome

Transduction

phages carry prokaryotic genes from one host cell to another

Electroporation

A technique to introduce recombinant DNA into cells by applying a brief electrical pulse to a solution containing the cells.

Mapping

Conjugation, Transduction, transformation

Transformation

modification of a cell or bacterium by the uptake and incorporation of foreign DNA

Co-transfer

Transfer of co-transformants at the same time

R

Resistant

S

Susceptible

Eukaryotic Regulation

No operon, gene sparsity, multiple polymerases

Prokaryotic Regulation

Gene dense, Operons, 1 RNA polymerase

GAL4p

the transcriptional activator that binds to GAL gene upstream activator sites (assisted by zinc ion)

activator

A protein that binds to DNA and stimulates transcription of a specific gene by bending the DNA and bringing in polymerase.

Transcriptional Regulators

Activators, Enhancer sequences, Silencer sequences

transcription factors

Collection of proteins that mediate the binding of RNA polymerase and the initiation of transcription. (If covering binding sites, transcription is prevented)

Chromosomes Remodeling

Opens up binding sites, Polymerase will push proteins out of the way in order to bind

TAP

Transporter complex (brought closer to TBP via chromosome remodeling)

TBP

TATA-Box Binding Protein (brought closer to TAP via chromosome remodeling)

Methylation

a biochemical process that reduces trasnscription

Silencer Proteins

proteins that bind to the enhancer sequence and block gene transcription. They also compact histones.

CGP Islands

Upstream of genes & recruits proteins to methylate cytosine & remodel chromatin

Imprinting

Includes SNRPN, UBE3A, and Needin. Certain genes are methylated at gametogenesis & methylation occurs differentially in male and female germlines.

Alternative splicing

The splicing of all or some exons resulting in isoforms & different functions/proteins.

control by persistence

Decay of transcripts, RNA interference (RNAi). split into Deadenylation dependent & Deadenylation independent

Deadenylation dependent

Poly A tail is down to 25-60 nucleotides. mRNA cap is lost and exonuclease degrades

Deadenylation independent

Decapped by enzymes & cleaved by endonuclease, then degraded by exonuclease

Autoregulation

Cmyc & similar to prokaryotic auto regulation

cmyc

encodes a cell cycle regulatory protein

Meiosis process

Meiosis I (reductional) ----> Meiosis II (equational)----> Mitosis

Probability calculations

Mathematical methods to determine likelihood of events. Addition Rule, Multiplication rule & allele frequency calculations

Addition rule

Adding mutually exclusive genotypes

Multiplication rule

the probability that two or more independent events is the product of their individual probabilities

chi-squared (x^2)

Sigma {(observed -expected) ^2/expected}

Locus/Loci

anywhere on the genome

genes

Functional loci

genotypes

Combination of alleles

Phenotypes/traits

phenotype is physically expressed; traits are observed characteristics

+

wildtype allele

/

sex-determined trait

Neurospora crassa

bread mold

Apple scab

Venturia inaequalis

Rhizocarpon eupetraeum Ascus

Has a spore called the ascospore

Meiosis I

reductional division

meiosis 2

equational division

Degrees of freedom

Categories -1

Meiosis equation

2n= N + N = 4 N (N + N + N + N)

p-value < 0.05

significant

p-value > 0.05

not significant

Branching Method

breaks down dihybrid cross into two separate monohybrid crosses

Recombination

process by which one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another chromosome during reproductive cell division

Recombination significant factors

Recombination depends on Physical Distance. More space = more recombination

F1 generation

the first generation of offspring obtained from an experimental cross of two organisms

F2 generation

offspring of the F1 generation

self cross

organism crossed with itself

RRYY x rryy

9:3:3:1

Tetrad Analysis

Neurospora Crassa, Apple Scab, Rhizocarpon, Eupetraeum, Ascus

Gametes

sex cells

Independent assortment

One of Mendel's principles; states that genes for different traits can segregate independently during the formation of gametes

Double recombination

What is this?

Single Recombination

What is this?

Three Randoms

Random mating, random union of gametes, random genetic drift

Random Mating

Non-directional, Picks a mate from population, non specific genotype

Non-Random mating

Directional & has a preferred mate

Random union of gametes

centered around genotype frequencies, the random selection of alleles into a new generation without regard to genotypes

HWE

Determines the expected frequencies of alleles in a new generation under certain assumptions

HWE Equation

p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1

HWE assumptions

No Selection, No Mutation, No Migration, Drift, Individuals choose mates at random, Large Population {>500)

Drift

Chance event

Organism Reproduction

Diploid, Sexual reproduction, no overlapping generations

Nature if Variations

Two alleles, Identical frequencies in males & females

Impact on Frequencies

No mutation, no migration, no selection

Mating dynamics

Random mating, large population

Random mating special cases

Multiple alleles, X linked loci

Random mating special cases Equation

(p+q+r)^2 = 1

Triploid

3 sets of chromosomes

Tetraploid

4 sets of chromosomes

Triploid equation

(P+q)^3=1

Tetraploid equation

(P+q)^4=1

Expected for AA

p^2

Expected for aa

q^2

Expected for Aa

(2 x p) q

Df

# of genotypes - # of alleles

HWE History

Created by G.H Hardy & Wilhelm Weinberg

Other authors (CHWE)

W.E. Castle & S.S Chet

Three alleles

p^2 +q^2 +r^2 + 2pq + 2pr +2rq =1

Random mating focuses on

Genotypes

3 multiple choice options

Negative Regulation

The default state of transcription is "on" unless a repressor turns it "off"

Positive Regulation

The default state of transcription is "off" unless a repressor turns it "on"