Snell Chapter 1

anatomical position

conventional reference posture

median plane

a vertical plane passing through the center of the body, dividing It into equal right and left halves

sagittal plane

any plane parallel to the median plane that divides the body into unequal right and left portions.

coronal or frontal plane

a vertical plane situated at a right angle to the median plane. The coronal plane divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions.

horizontal plane

right angles to both the median and the coronal planes. A horizontal plane divides the body into upper and lower parts.

transverse plane

perpendicular to the long axis of a given structure and divides that structure In a cross-sectional orientation.

ventral, dorsal

anterior is __________, posterior is _________

superficial, deep

________ is closer to the surface, whereas _____ Is farther away from the surface (e.g., the skin Is _________ l to the ribs, but the heart Is ____ to the ribs).

internal, external

_______ is inside the structure and ______ is outside the structure (e.g., the thoracic cavity ls an ______ space in the trunk of the body, whereas the skin Is the ________ layer of the trunk).

ipsilateral, contralateral

_________ is on the same side as the reference point, and ______ is on the opposite side from the reference point (e.g., the right eye is ________ to the right ear; however, the right eye ls ________ to the left ear)

supine, prone

The ______ position of the body is lying on the back. The ______ position is laying face downward.

afferent, efferent

________ is flow toward the reference point, whereas _______ is flow away from the reference (e.g., venous blood now is ______ to the heart, and arterial blood flow ls _______ to the heart).

flexion

the movement in which a joint angle is decreased (closed) during motion occurring in a sagittal plane.

extension

the opposite movement in which the joint angle is increased, usually Is an anterior movement, but it ls occasionally directed posteriorly, as ln the case of the knee joint, typically implies a relatively more powerful, antlgravity movement directed toward the embryonic ventral aspect of the body.

dorsiflexion

(the equivalent to extension) refers to lifting the top of the foot superiorly, toward the shin.

plantar flexion

the equivalent to flexion, refers to moving the sole of the foot Inferiorly, as ln standing on the toes.

abduction

movement away from the midline of the body in the coronal plane.

adduction

movement toward the midline of the body in the coronal plane

inversion

turning the sole of the foot so that the sole faces In a medial direction, toward the midline

eversion

opposite movement of the foot so that the sole faces in a lateral direction.

rotation

the movement of a part of the body around its long axis, with little to no movement through space.

medial rotation

the movement that results in the anterior surface of the part facing medially

lateral rotation

the movement that results in the anterior surface of the part facing laterally

circumduction

a complex sequence of movements combining flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, and rotation.

pronation

turning the forearm medially In such a manner that the palm of the hand faces posteriorly

supination

turning the forearm laterally from the pronated position so that the palm of the hand comes to face anteriorly

protraction

moving a body part forward.

retraction

move a part backward.

epidermis, dermis

The skin is divided into two parts: the superficial part, the _______, and the deep part, the ____________.

superficial fascia

The dermis of the skin is connected to the underlying deep fascia or bones by the ________, otherwise known as subcutaneous tissue.

skin creases

The skin over joints always folds in the same place, the __________. At these sites, the skin is thinner than elsewhere and is firmly tethered to underlying structures by strong bands of fibrous tissue.

follicles

invaglnations of the epidermis into the dermis where hair grow out of

hair papilla, arrector pili

Each hair bulb is concave at its end, and the concavity is occupied by vascular connective tissue called the ________. A band of smooth muscle, the _____, connects the undersurface of the follicle to the superficial part of the dermis.

sebum

Sebaceous glands secrete ___________ onto the shafts of the hairs as they pass up through the necks of the follicles.

sweat glands

_________ are long, spiral, tubular glands distributed over the surface of the body, except on the red margins of the lips. the nail beds, and the glans penis and clitoris, most deeply penetrating structures of all the epidermal appendages.

parynochia

Infection occurring between the nail and the nail fold Is called a _______.

boil

infection of the hair follicle and sebaceous gland Is responsible for the common ______.

carbuncle

A ________ Is a staphylococcal infection of the superficial fascia that commonly occurs in the nape of the neck and usually starts as an Infection of a hair follicle or a group of hair follicles.

sebaceous cyst

caused by obstruction of the mouth of a sebaceous duct and may be caused by damage from a comb or by Infection. It occurs most frequently on the scalp

shock

A patient who is in a state of ________ is pale and has gooseflesh as a result of overactivity of the sympathetic system, which causes vasoconstriction of the dermal arterioles and contraction of the arrector pill muscles.

split-thickness graft

In a __________, the greater part of the epidermis, Including the tips of the dermal papillae, ls removed from the donor site and placed on the recipient site. This leaves the epidermal cells on the sides of the dermal papillae and the cells of the hair follicles and sweat glands at the donor site for repair purposes.

full-thickness graft

A __________ includes both the epidermis and the dermis and requires rapid establishment of a new circulation within It at the recipient site to survive. The donor site Is usually covered with a spilt-thickness graft.

fascia

the connective tissue that encloses the body deep to the skin and also envelops and separates Individual muscles and groups of muscles as well as deeper organs.

superficial fascia

mixture of loose areolar and adipose tissue that unites the dermis of the skin to the underlying deep fascia

deep fascia

a membranous layer of connective tissue that invests the muscles and other deep structures.

retinacula

In the region of joints, the deep fascia may be considerably thickened to form restraining bands called rednacula (Fig. 1. 7). Their function Is to hold underlying tendons In position or to serve as pulleys around which the tendons can move.

bone

a living tissue capable of changing its structure when subjected to stresses.

periosteum

A thick layer of fibrous tissue called the _______ covers all bone surfaces, other than the articulating surfaces.

sharpey’s fibers

extend from the periosteum to the underlying bone

compact, cancellous

_______ bone appears as a solid mass; _______ bone consists of a branching network of trabeculae The trabeculae are arranged so as to provide resistance against mechanical stresses and strains.

axial skeleton

forms the central/main axis of support

Includes the skull, hyoid bone, vertebral column, sternum, and ribs

appendicular skeleton

bones of the upper and lower limb

Includes girdles: connects the limbs to the axial skeleton

long bones

found in the limbs (e.g., the humerus, femur, metacarpals, metatarsals, and phalanges).

Their length is greater than their breadth.

They have a tubular shaft, the diaphysis, and usually an epiphysis at each end.

epiphyseal cartilage

During the growing phase, the diaphysis Is separated from the epiphysis by an __________.

compact, cancellous

In a long bone, the outer part of the shaft ls composed of ____ bone that is covered by periosteum. The ends of long bones are composed of ________ bone surrounded by a thin layer of compact bone. The articular surfaces of the ends of the bones are covered by hyaline cartilage.

flat bones, tables, diploe

Composed of thin inner and outer compact bone

_____ - thin inner and outer layers of compact bone ● Diploë - cancellous bone that separates the 2 tables ○ e.g. frontal and parietal bones, scapulae ○ Includes: sternum, ribs, scapula, pelvic bones

sesamoid bones

Small bones in certain tendons; connects to certain muscles

Acts as pulley to alleviate stress on particular tendon or muscle

patella

largest sesamoid bone, found in the tendon of quadriceps femoris

short bones

● In the hand and foot; roughly cuboidal in shape

● Cancellous bone surrounded by a thin layer of compact bone

e.g. scaphoid, lunate, talus, and calcaneum

irregular bones

● Does not fit other categories

● Thin shell of compact bone with interior cancellous bone

○ e.g. bones of the skull, vertebrae, and pelvic bones

cartilage, perichondrium

______ - strong, flexible connective tissue protecting joints and bones

________ - fibrous membrane that covers the cartilage except on exposed surfaces

hyaline cartilage

● Abundant in amorphous matrix

● Covers articular surfaces of synovial joints

● Important in growth in length of long bones

● Important in growth and length of long bones (epiphyseal plates)

● Resists wear and covers articular surfaces of nearly all synovial joints

● Incapable of repair when fractured ○ Defect is filled with fibrous tissue

fibrocartilage

● Abundant collagen fibers in small amount of matrix

● Found in:

○ Discs within joints ■ e.g. temporomandibular joint, sternoclavicular joint, knee joint

○ Intervertebral discs

○ Articular surfaces of clavicle and mandible

● Slow repair when damaged

● Joint discs have poor blood supply

elastic cartilage

● Abundant elastic fibers in matrix = flexibility

● Found in: auricle of ear, external auditory meatus, auditory tube, epiglottis

● Repairs itself with fibrous tissue if damaged

joints

● Site where two or more bones come together, whether or not movement occurs between them

● Classification based on the tissues that lie in the joint space between the bones

fibrous joints

● Articulating surfaces of bone

● Tightly linked by fibrous tissue

● Very little movement

synchrondosis, symphysis

● Cartilaginous pad fills spaces between articulating surfaces

● Examples:

○ ___________- hyaline cartilage plate/bar

○ ___________ - fibrocartilaginous plate, located along midline

synovial joints

Articular surfaces covered by thin layer of hyaline and separated by fluid-filled joint cavity

bursae

Closed fibrous sac internally lined internally with synovial membrane

○ Viscous fluid from membrane fills the sac

● Acts to reduce friction in areas where they are found

synovial sheath

● Tubular bursa surrounding a tendon

● Functions to reduce friction between tendon and surrounding structures

○ Tendon invaginates bursa from one side and becomes suspended within the bursa by a mesotendon

● Mesotendon disappears or remains as narrow threads (vincula) when range of movement is extensive

cardiac muscle

○ Striated, branching fibers

○ Forms myocardium

○ Capable of spontaneous and rhythmic contraction

○ Conducting system of the heart

smooth muscle

Long, spindle-shaped cells arranged in close bundles and sheets

○ Peristalsis - due to longitudinal and circular arrangement in GI tract

○ Irregularly arranged and interlaced fibers in storage organs like urinary bladder

○ Circular arrangement in blood vessels

○ Contraction stimulated by local stretching of fibers, autonomic nerves, and hormones

skeletal muscles

● Produces movement of skeleton

● Voluntary muscles made up of striated muscle fibers

● Has two or more attachments

tendons

cords of fibrous tissue attaching muscle ends to supporting elements (e.g. bones, cartilage, ligaments, others)

aponeurosis

tendons formed as thin, strong sheets from flat abdominal muscles

raphe

interdigitation of the tendinous ends of fibers of flat muscles