Chapter 1

Anatomy

structure of body parts and relation to one another.

Physiology

Concerns function; how body parts work for life sustaining activities. It is explainable only in terms of underlying anatomy

Gross/macroscopic anatomy

Large structures visible to the naked eye

Regional anatomy (subdivision of gross)

All structures in a particular region are examined at once (ex: leg)

Systemic anatomy (subdivision of gross)

Body structure is studied system by system (ex: cardiovascular)

Surface anatomy (subdivision of gross)

Internal structures as they relate to skin surface (ex: bugling muscles, pulses)

Microscopic anatomy

Structures too small to be seen with the naked eye. Thin slices of tissues are stained and mounted on glass and examined under a microscope

Cytology (subdivision of microscopic)

structures/study of cells of the body

Histology (subdivision of microscopic)

study of microscopic structure of tissues

Developmental anatomy

structural changes throughout the lifespan

embryology (subdivision of developmental)

developmental changes before birth

Pathological anatomy

structural changes caused by disease

Radiographic anatomy

internal structures via x-ray

Palpation

feeling with hands

auscultation

listening to organ sounds via stethoscope

Renal physiology

kidney function and urine production

neurophysiology

nervous system function

cardiovascular physiology

heart and blood vessel function

Principle of complementarity of structure and function

What a structure can do depends on its form

chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organism

levels of organization from most simple to most complex

muscle tissue

tissue provides movement

epithelial tissue

tissue covers body surface and cavities

connective tissue

tissue supports and protects organs

nervous tissue

tissue for internal communication via electrical impulses

organ

structure composed of at least 2 (mostly 4) types of tissue with a specific, complex function

Organ system

organs working together for a common purpose

organism

sum total of all structural levels working together to keep us alive

integumentary system

Hair, skin, nails. system forms body covering, protects tissues from injury.

skeletal system

Joints, bones. System protects and supports organs, provides framework for movement. Blood cells formed within bones. Bones store minerals

Muscular system

Muscles. System allows manipulation of environment. Maintains posture, produces heat.

Nervous system

brain, spinal cord, nerves. Control system responds o changes by activating muscles and glands.

Endocrine system.

Glands secrete hormones. System regulates reproduction, growth, metabolism.

Cardiovascular system

Heart, blood vessels. System transports blood, carries oxygen, CO2, nutrients, waste, etc. Heart pumps blood

Lymphatic system

Red bone marrow, thymus, lymphatic vessels, thoracic duct, spleen, lymph nodes. System returns fluid leaked from blood vessels to blood. Houses blood cells involved in immunity.

Respiratory system

Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, bronchus, trachea, lungs. System keep blood in supply of oxygen and removes CO2.

Digestive system

Oral cavity, esophagus, liver, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus. System breaks down food into absorbable units and eliminates indigestible foodstuffs.

Urinary system

Kidney, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra. System eliminates nitrogenous waste from body, Regulates water, electrolytes, and acid-base balances of blood.

Male reproductive system

Prostate, penis, testis, ductus deferens, scrotum. System produces sperm and male sex hormone.

female reproductive system

Mammary glands, uterus, vagina, ovaries, uterine tube. System produces eggs and female sex hormone, serves as sites for fertilization and development of fetus. Mammary glands produce milk to nourish newborn.

Boundaries, movement, responsiveness, digestion, metabolism, excretion, reproduction, growth

Functional characteristics necessary to maintain life in humans \[8\]

Nutrients, oxygen, water, temperature, atmospheric pressure

Survival needs of the body \[5\]

Homeostasis

Body maintains stable internal conditions. Body is in a dynamic state of equilibrium, conditions vary in narrow limits.

Negative feedback mechanism

Most common homeostatic control mechanism. Net effect: outputs shuts off original stimulus/reduces intensity. (ex: body temperature, blood sugar)

Positive feedback mechanism

Enhances original stimulus, in same direction as initial change. Often referred to as “cascades. (ex: blood clotting, contractions during birth)

Homeostatic imbalance

When negative feedback mechanisms are overwhelmed, and destructive positive feedback mechanisms take over. OR, body systems become less efficient with age.

Endocrine and nervous

Two organ systems responsible for homeostasis (think communication)

Receptor

Thing that allows body to sense something is off. Could be monitoring: fluid levels, BP, HR, temp, etc. Continually sends signals to control centre via afferent pathway.

control center

Place in body that controls area being monitored. Compares information given by receptor to the set point. If outside of range, control center sends signal via efferent pathway.

Disease

core of _____ is an issue with negative feedback loop (cause of homeostatic imbalance)

Body is erect, feet slightly apart. Standing at attention, with palms forward and thumbs away. Heels raised to show plantar surface of foot

Standard body position: anatomical position \[6\]

Axial part

Main axis of body, includes head, neck, trunk

Appendicular part

Appendages/limbs attached to body’s axis

Sagittal plane

Vertical plane, divides body left/right

Median/midsaggital plane

Sagittal plane that lies at midline

Parasagittal plane

all other offset saggital planes

Frontal/coronal plane

Vertical plane, divides anterior/posterior

Transverse/horizontal plane (also “cross section)

Plane divides superior and inferior parts horizontally.

Oblique section

diagonal cuts between horizontal and vertical (seldom used)

Patient

“Right” and “left” refers to ________’s right and left

Dorsal body cavity

Cavity protects fragile nervous system

Cranial cavity (subdivision of dorsal)

Cavity encases brain in skull

Vertebral/spinal cavity (subdivision of dorsal)

Cavity encloses spinal cord

meninges

Membranes covering brain and spinal cord

Ventral body cavity

Large cavity, houses viscera

Viscera

Group of organs housed in ventral body cavity

Thoracic cavity (subivision of ventral)

Superior cavity, surrounded by ribs and chest muscles

Pleural cavities (subdivision of thoracic)

Cavities that each envelope a lung

Mediastinum (subdivision of thoracic)

Cavity housing heart, thymus, parts of trachea, bronchi, and esophagus

Pericardial cavity (subdivision of mediastinum)

Cavity housing heart

Abdominopelvic cavity (subdivision of ventral)

Inferior cavity to visceral cavity, separated by diaphragm

Abdominal cavity (subdivision of abdominopelvic)

Cavity houses stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, other organs

Pelvic cavity (subdivision of abdominopelvic cavity)

Cavity in pelvis. Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, rectum.

Serosa

thin, double layered membrane covers walls and outer surface of cavities

Parietal serosa (subdivision of serosa)

Membrane lines walls of ventral cavity

Visceral serosa (subdivision of parietal serosa)

thin, double layered membrane that lines outer surfaces within ventral cavity

Serous fluid

Clear, watery fluid secreted by cells of serous membranes that separates and reduces friction

Oral and digestive cavities

Mouth. Cavity opens body exterior to anus

Nasal cavity

Cavity within and posterior to nose (respiratory system)

Orbital cavities

Cavities that house eyes in the skull

Middle ear cavity

Cavities in skull that transmit sound to inner ear

synovial cavities

Joint cavities enclosed in fibrous capsules. Membranes secrete a lubricating fluid to reduce friction.