psych 275 FER

What is the primary focus of Chapter 7?

How to study the brain's structures and functions.

What methods are commonly used to study the brain?

Techniques such as neuroimaging, electrophysiology, and lesion studies.

What is neuroimaging?

A technique that allows visualization of brain structures and functions using methods like MRI and CT scans.

What role do lesion studies play in understanding the brain?

They help identify the functions of specific brain areas by observing the effects of damage to those areas.

What is electrophysiology?

A method that measures electrical activity in the brain to understand its functions.

What does fNIRS provide insight into?

Surface cortical activity and early language learning.

How do newborns respond to language exposure?

They respond preferentially to the language they were exposed to in utero.

What is neuropsychology?

The study of the relationship between brain function and behavior, with emphasis on humans.

Who discovered the link between brain damage and language difficulties?

Paul Broca.

What does histological technique involve?

Sectioning brains postmortem and staining tissue with different dyes.

What is Brainbow?

A transgenic technique developed by Jean Livet to label different neurons with distinct colors.

What did Parra-Damas and Saura develop?

Tissue-clearing techniques for visualizing deep brain structures without histological sectioning.

What is behavioral neuroscience?

The study of the biological bases of behavior in both humans and laboratory animals.

What is ethology?

The objective study of animal behavior, especially under natural conditions.

What is the purpose of neuropsychological testing?

To measure brain functions linked to specific brain structures or pathways.

What did Karl Lashley's ablation studies conclude about memory?

Memory is distributed throughout the brain.

What is the function of a stereotaxic apparatus?

To access subcortical regions of the brain using a three-dimensional brain map.

Who first used electrical brain stimulation during neurosurgery?

Wilder Penfield.

What is deep brain stimulation (DBS)?

A neurosurgical technique involving electrodes implanted in the brain to stimulate a targeted area.

What is transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)?

A procedure that uses a magnetic coil to stimulate the brain or disrupt ongoing behavior.

What is the purpose of drug manipulations in neuroscience?

To study the effects of drugs on brain activity and behavior.

What are the four major techniques for measuring brain electrical activity?

Single cell recording, EEG, event-related potentials (ERPs), and magnetoencephalography (MEG).

What does EEG measure?

The summed graded potentials from many thousands of neurons.

What are event-related potentials (ERPs)?

Graded potentials triggered by sensory stimuli, averaged over multiple presentations to reduce noise.

What does magnetoencephalography (MEG) record?

Magnetic potentials produced by neural activity, allowing for three-dimensional localization.

What is computed tomography (CT)?

An imaging technique that creates a three-dimensional image of the brain using x-ray beams.

What does magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) measure?

The density of hydrogen atoms in different brain regions to produce static images.

What is diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)?

A technique that detects the directional movements of water molecules to image nerve-fiber pathways.

What is functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)?

An imaging technique that measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow and oxygen levels.

What does positron emission tomography (PET) measure?

Changes in blood flow by measuring the uptake of compounds like oxygen or glucose.

What is cerebral microdialysis?

A technique to monitor chemical constituents in extracellular fluids in the brain.

What is cerebral voltammetry?

A method to measure extracellular levels of specific neurotransmitters in real-time.

What role do genes play in brain organization?

Genes regulate the synthesis of proteins that influence brain structure and function.

What is epigenetics?

The study of how gene expression changes in response to environmental factors and experiences.

How can chronic stress affect gene expression?

It can lead to lasting changes in how genes function, potentially across generations.

Who is James Heckman?

An economist who advocates for early investment in families in low-income brackets to promote optimal development for at-risk children.

How does socioeconomic status (SES) influence children's development?

Early experiences related to SES influence children's cerebral development and opportunities for language learning.

What is the role of knowledge gaps in health and prosperity?

Knowledge gaps can significantly impact health outcomes and overall prosperity.

What do Kimberly Noble and colleagues argue about SES?

They argue that SES does not directly drive effects on language and development; rather, it serves as a proxy for language learning opportunities.

What are the three perspectives on brain development studied by neuroscientists?

1. Structural development correlated with emerging behaviors. 2. Behavioral development predicted by underlying circuitry. 3. Influence of factors like language, injury, or SES on both brain structure and behavior.

What factors influence both brain structure and behavioral development?

Sensory experiences, injuries, hormones, genes, and socioeconomic status (SES).

What happens if one factor influences behavior?

The brain structures changed by that factor are responsible for the behavioral outcomes.

What historic perspective did Seneca the Younger propose about development?

He proposed ideas related to information and development over two thousand years ago.

What recognition emerged in the mid-1800s regarding embryos?

The recognition that embryos do not resemble adults and that similarities exist between different species.

What is visible in the human embryo at about 28 days?

The forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain of the embryonic vertebrate nervous system.

What question is raised about stem cells?

How do stem cells know what to become?

What is the role of chemical signals in gene expression during brain development?

Chemical signals activate certain genes, leading to the production of specific cell types.

What is methylation's effect on gene expression?

Methylation dramatically alters gene expression during development.

How many cells are required to form the cortex of a single hemisphere of the human brain?

Approximately 10 billion cells.

What process involves the brain pruning unnecessary cells and connections?

Synaptic pruning.

List the stages of brain development.

1) Cell birth (neurogenesis; gliogenesis) 2) Neural Migration 3) Cell differentiation 4) Neural maturation 5) Synaptogenesis 6) Cell death and synaptic pruning 7) Myelogenesis.

What is myelination and when does it begin?

Myelination is the formation of myelin around nerve fibers, beginning after birth and continuing until at least age 20.

What unique aspect of frontal lobe development extends beyond age 20?

Frontal lobe maturation, including the elimination of dendritic spines, continues beyond age 20.

What correlation exists between frontal lobe development and adult intelligence?

The trajectory of frontal lobe development correlates with adult intelligence.

What are critical periods in brain development?

Developmental windows during which certain experiences have a lasting influence on brain structure and function.

What is imprinting in the context of brain development?

Formation of an attachment by an animal to objects or animals during a critical period, leading to rapid structural changes in the brain.

What are the effects of enriched environments on brain development according to Hebb (1947)?

Enriched environments lead to more and larger synapses and astrocytes, maximizing intellectual development.

How does socioeconomic status (SES) influence brain development?

SES is associated with the pace of brain development, with higher SES linked to thicker cortices in children.

What is the default network in the brain?

A network formed by increased connectivity between medial frontal lobe regions, posterior cingulate cortex, and lateral parietal lobe.

What are the consequences of early exposure to stress on brain development?

It alters gene expression related to stress responses and may predispose individuals to behavioral disorders.

What is Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)?

Unexplained death of a seemingly healthy infant under one year old, often linked to genetic variations affecting serotonin transport.

What are the major causes of developmental disabilities?

Genetic abnormalities, prenatal infections, birth trauma, malnutrition, and environmental factors.

What is spina bifida?

A spinal cord abnormality due to the failure of the neural tube to close completely, leading to serious motor problems.

What is the significance of the adolescent brain period?

Adolescence is marked by heightened neural plasticity, making the brain vulnerable to experiences that influence organization.

What role do gonadal hormones play in brain development?

They are crucial for brain changes during adolescence and also affect prenatal brain development.

What is the relationship between gut bacteria and brain development?

Gut bacteria can influence mental state and behavior, with atypical microbiomes linked to neurodevelopmental disorders.

What are psychobiotics?

Treatments using live bacteria or compounds to enhance gut bacteria growth, potentially altering behavior.

What are the effects of prenatal exposure to drugs on brain development?

It may increase the risk of learning disabilities and hyperactivity.

What is the role of experience in cortical organization?

Cognitive experiences shape brain structure and function, leading to differences in brain organization.

What is the effect of maternal contact deprivation in animal studies?

It leads to atypical intellectual and social behaviors in adulthood.

What are the potential effects of prenatal adversity?

It can lead to abnormal behavior and increased risk for behavioral disorders later in life.

What is the significance of the critical period in brain development?

Events during this period can have long-lasting effects on brain structure and function.

What is the impact of adverse experiences on prenatal development?

They can lead to abnormal behavior and increased risk for later behavioral disorders.

What is the relationship between early visual deprivation and brain development?

It can lead to functional blindness and atrophy of dendrites in cortical neurons.

What are the effects of childhood adversity on brain development?

Children raised in adverse conditions may experience hampered intellectual and motor development.

What is the significance of the corpus callosum in relation to testosterone?

Testosterone levels in females are positively related to changes in corpus callosum white matter.

What is anencephaly?

A condition where the forebrain fails to develop due to the neural tube not closing, leading to infant mortality.

What is synaptogenesis?

The formation of synapses during brain development.

What is the role of experience in shaping brain development?

Complex experiences can stimulate brain growth and influence later behavior.

What is the impact of genetic abnormalities on brain development?

They can lead to conditions such as Down syndrome and affect cognitive functioning.

What is plasticity in the context of brain development?

The brain's capacity to repair minor abnormalities that may occur during development.

What does the term 'normality' refer to in brain development?

A range of typical brain development that most individuals fall within.

Can plasticity occur in older adulthood?

Yes, plasticity can occur into older adulthood.

What causes migraines?

Dilation of cerebral blood vessels during an aura.

What are common symptoms of migraines?

Nausea, vomiting, and severe head pain.

What surgical option may be considered for severe migraines?

Surgery may be performed when migraines interfere with daily life.

What is blindsight?

The ability to respond to visual stimuli without conscious visual perception.

How does the brain receive input from the real world?

Through a series of action potentials passed along the neurons of sensory pathways.

What are sensory receptors?

Specialized cells that transduce sensory energy into neural activity.

What type of energy do visual receptors respond to?

Light energy, which produces chemical energy.

What is a receptive field?

The region of sensory space in which a stimulus modifies a receptor's activity.

How does receptor density affect sensitivity?

Higher density of sensory receptors increases sensitivity, as seen in fingers compared to arms.

What is the function of neural relays in sensory systems?

To connect all receptors to the cortex through intervening neurons and modify information.

How is sensory information encoded?

By action potentials traveling along peripheral nerves to the central nervous system.

What does the neocortex represent in sensory fields?

A spatially organized neural representation of the external world.

What is the difference between sensation and perception?

Sensation is the registration of physical stimuli, while perception is the subjective interpretation of those sensations.

What is the primary sensory experience in humans?

Vision.

What structures are involved in the basic anatomy of the eye?

Cornea, iris, pupil, lens, and retina.

What is the function of the fovea?

It is specialized for high visual acuity and is located at the center of the retina.

What is the blind spot in the retina?

The region where the optic nerve leaves the eye and has no photoreceptors.