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law of conservation of matter

matter can be transformed from one type of substance into others, but it cannot be destroyed or created

Isotopes

atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons

Mass number

the combined number of protons and neutrons

Radioactive isotopes (radioisotopes) decay until

they become non-radioactive stable isotopes, emit high-energy radiation, and this radiation is called ionizing radiation because it generates ions when it strikes other atoms

Ionic compounds (salts)

an electron is transferred

Solutions

a mixture of substances with no chemical bonding (e.g., air, ocean water, petroleum, ozone)

ionic bonds

electrons are transferred between atoms

covalent bonds

electrons are shared between atoms

Hydrogen bond

oxygen from one water molecule attracts hydrogen atoms of another

Polymers

long chains of carbon molecules

Macromolecules

large-sized molecules

the three polymers essential to life

proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates

Proteins

long chains of amino acids

what do proteins do

They provide structural support, store energy, and transport material

Animals use proteins to generate skin, hair, muscles, and tendons

Some are components of the immune system or work as hormones

They can serve as enzymes, molecules that promote chemical

reactions

Nucleic acids

long chains of nucleotides that contain sugar, phosphate, and a nitrogen base

Genes

regions of DNA that code for proteins that perform certain functions

Sugars

simple carbohydrates of 3–7 carbons

Energy

the capacity to change the position, physical composition, or

temperature of matter

First law of thermodynamics

energy can change forms, but cannot be created or destroyed

Second law of thermodynamics

energy changes from a more-ordered to a less-ordered state

Entropy

an increasing state of disorder

Energy conversion efficiency

the ratio of useful energy output to the amount needing to be input

Calvin cycle

links carbon atoms from carbon dioxide into sugar (glucose)

photosynthesis equation

c6h12c6+6o2

Hydrothermal vents

host communities that thrive in high temperature and pressure

Asthenosphere

very soft or melted rock

Lithosphere

the uppermost mantle and the crust

Marble

heated and pressurized limestone

Slate

heated and pressurized shale

Volcano

formed when molten rock, hot gas, or ash erupts through Earth’s surface, cooling and creating a mountain

Landslide

a severe, sudden mass wasting

Dynamic equilibrium

when system processes move in opposing directions; balancing their effects

Homeostasis

when a system maintains constant (stable) internal conditions

Emergent properties

system characteristics that are not evident in the components alone

Airshed

the geographic area that produces air pollutants that are likely to end up in a waterway

Primary production

conversion of solar energy to chemical energy in sugars by autotrophs

Gross primary production (GPP)

total amount of energy captured by autotrophs

Net primary production (NPP)

energy remaining after respiration—used to generate biomass

Secondary production

biomass generated by heterotrophs from consuming autotrophs

Productivity

rate at which ecosystems generate biomass

Macronutrients

nutrients required in larger amounts

Micronutrients

nutrients needed in smaller amounts

Ecotones

transition zones between two ecosystems

Landscape ecology

studies how interacting ecosystems affect the abundance, distribution, and interaction of organisms

Patches

separate areas of similar habitat

Metapopulation

a network of separated subpopulations, each occupying a patch in a mosaic

mosaic

separate areas of a similar habitat spread in complex patterns

Conservation biologists

study the loss, protection, and restoration of biodiversity

Ecological modeling

constructs and tests models to explain and predict how ecological systems work

Pools (reservoirs)

where nutrients reside for

varying amounts of time (the residence time)

Flux

the rate at which materials move between pools

Source

a pool that releases more nutrients than it accepts

Sink

a pool that accepts more nutrients than it releases

Transpiration

release of water vapor by plants

Aquifers

underground reservoirs of groundwater found in spongelike regions of rock and soil

Water table

the upper limit of groundwater in an aquifer

Denitrifying bacteria

bacteria that convert nitrates in soil or water to gaseous nitrogen, releasing it back into the atmosphere and completing the nitrogen cycle

bottleneck

the limiting factor in crop production

Haber-Bosch process

production of fertilizers by combining nitrogen and hydrogen to synthesize ammonia