Psych Ch 8, 10, 12 RP & Module Exam

Multiple-choice questions test our _____. Fill-in-the-blank questions test our _____

recognition; recall

If you want to be sure to remember what you’re learning for an upcoming test, would it be better to use recall or recognition to check your memeory? Why?

It would be better to test your memory with recall (such as short-answer or fill-in-the-blank-self test questions) rather than recognition (such as with multiple-choice questions). Recalling information is harder than recognizing it. So if you can recall it that means your retention of the material is better than if you could only recognize it. Your chances of test success are, therefore greater

How does working memory concept update the classic Atkinson-Shiffrin three-stage information-processing model?

The Atkinson-Shiffrin model viewed short-term memory as a temporary holding space for briefly storing recent thoughts and experiences. The newer idea of working memory expands our understanding of Atkinson-Shiffrin’s short-term memory stage, emphasizing the conscious, active processing that takes place as the brain makes sense of new experiences and links them with our long-term memories

What are two basic functions of working memory?

Working memory’s two basic functions are active integration of new information with existing long-term memories and focusing of our spotlight of attention.

What is the difference between automatic and effortful processing, and what are some examples of each?

Automatic processing occurs unconsciously (automatically) for such things as the sequence and frequency of a day’s events, and reading and comprehending words in our own language(s). Effortful processing requires attentive awareness and happens, for example, when we work hard to learn new material in class, or new lines for a play.

At which of the Atkinson-Shiffrin’s three memory stages would iconic and echoic memory occur?

sensory memory

Which strategies are better for long-term retention: cramming and rereading material or spreading out learning over time and repeatedly testing yourself?

Although cramming and rereading may lead to short-term gains in knowledge, distributed practice, and repeated self-testing will result in the greatest long-term retention

If you try to make the material you are learning personally meaningful, are you processing at a shallow or a deep level? Which level leads to greater retention?

Making material personally meaningful involves processing at a deep level, because you are processing semantically-based on the meaning of the words. Deep processing leads to greater retention.

A psychologist who asks you to write down as many objects as you can remember having seen a few minutes earlier is testing your _____

recall

The psychological terms for taking in information, retaining it, and later getting it back out are _____, ______, and ______/

encoding; storage; retrieval

The concept of working memory

a. clarifies the idea of short-term memory by focusing on the active processing that occurs in this stage

b. splits short-term memory into two substages-sensory memory and iconic memory

c. splits short-term memory into two types: implicit and explicit memory

d. clarifies the idea of short-term memory by focusing on space, time, and frequency

a. clarifies the idea of short-term memory by focusing on the active processing that occurs in this stage

sensory memory may be visual (______ memory) or auditory (______ memory)

iconic; echoic

our short-term memory for new information is limited to about ____ bits of information

seven

memory aids that use visual imagery or other organizational devices are called ______.

mnemonics

_____ report experiencing emotions more deeply, and they tend to be more adept at reading nonverbal behavior.

Women

How are facial expressions rooted in biology and culture?

Some facial expressions, such as those of happiness and sadness, tend to be universally recognizable and thus likely rooted in biology. Context and culture, however, can influence the way facial expressions are interpreted. Like most psychological events, facial expressions are best understood not only as biological and cognitive phenomena, but also as social-cultural phenomena.

(a) Based on the facial feedback effect, how might students report feeling when the rubber bands raise their cheeks as though in a smile? (b) How might students report feeling when the rubber bands pull their cheeks downward?

(a) most students report feeling more happy than sad when their cheeks are raised upward. (b) Most students report feeling more sad than happy when their cheeks are pulled downward.

When people are induced to assume a fearful expression, they often report feeling some fear. This result is known as the _______ _______ effect

facial feedback

Aiden has a bad cold and finds himself shuffling to class with his head down. How might his posture, as well as his cold, affect his emotional well-being?

Aiden’s droopy posture could negatively affect his mood thanks to the behavior feedback effect, which tends to make us feel the way we act.

According to the Cannon-Bard theory (a) our physiological response to a stimulus (for example, a pounding heart), and (b) the emotion we experience (for example, fear) occur ______. According to the James-Lange theory, (a) and (b) occur _______.

simultaneously; sequentially

According to Schachter and Singer, two factors lead to our experience of an emotion; (a) physiological arousal and (b) _____ appraisal.

cognitive

Emotion researchers have disagreed about whether emotional responses occur in the absence of cognitive processing. How would you characterize the approach of each of the following researchers: Zajonc, LeDoux, Lazarus, Schachter, and Singer

Zajonc and LeDoux suggested that we experience some emotions without any conscious, cognitive appraisal. Lazarus, Schachter, and Singer emphasized the importance of appraisal and cognitive labeling in our experience of emotion.

What roles do the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system play in our emotional responses?

The sympathetic division of the ANS arouses us for more intense experiences of emotion, pumping out the stress hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine to prepare our body for fight or flight. The parasympathetic division of the ANS takes over when a crisis passes, restoring our body to a calm physiological and emotional state.

The ______-_______ theory of emotion maintains that our emotional experience occurs after our awareness of a physiological response.

James-Lange

Imagine that after returning from an hour-long run, you receive a letter saying that your scholarship application has been approved. The two-factor theory of emotion would predict that your physical arousal will

(a). weaken your happiness

(b). intensify your happiness

c. transform your happiness into relief

d. have no particular effect on your happiness

b. intensify your happiness

Zajonc and LeDoux have maintained that some emotional reactions occur before we have had the chance to consciously label or interpret them. Lazarus noted the importance of how we appraise events. These psychologists differ in the emphasis they place on _____ in emotional responses.

a. physical arousal

b. the hormone epinephrine

c. cognitive processing

d. learning

c. cognitive processing

What does a polygraph measure, and why are its results questionable?

A polygraph measures emotion-linked physiological changes, such as in perspiration, heart rate, and breathing. But the measure cannot distinguish between emotions with similar physiology (such as anxiety and guilt).

When alerted to a negative, uncontrollable event, our _____ nervous system arouses us. Heart rate and respiration _____. Blood is diverted from digestion to the skeletal _____. The body releases sugar and fat. All this prepares the body for the _____-______-_______ response.

sympathetic; increase; muscles; fight-or-flight

The field of _____ studies mind-body interactions, including the effects of psychological, neural, and endocrine functioning on the immune system and overall health.

psychoneuroimmunology

What general effect does stress have on our health?

Stress tends to reduce our immune system’s ability to function properly, so that higher stress generally leads to greater risk of physical illness.

Which component of the Type A personality has been linked most closely to coronary heart disease?

Feeling angry and negative much of the time.

The number of short-term illnesses and stress-related psychological disorders was higher than usual in the months following an earthquake. Such findings suggest that

a. daily hassles have adverse health consequences

b. experiencing a very stressful event increases a person’s vulnerability to illness

c. the amount of stress a person feels is directly related to the number of stressors experienced.

d. daily hassles don’t cause stress, but catastrophes can be toxic

b. experiencing a very stressful event increases a person’s vulnerability to illness

Which of the following is NOT one of the three main types of stressors?

a. catastrophes

b. significant life changes

c. daily hassles

d. pessimism

d. pessimism

Selye’s general adaptation syndrome (GAS) consists of an alarm reaction followed by _____, then _______

resistance; exhausion

When faced with stress, women are more likely than men to show a _______-and -_______ response.

tend; befriend

Stress can suppress the _____ ______ by prompting a decreasing in the release of cells that ordinarily attack bacteria, viruses, cancer cells, and other foreign substances.

immune system

A Chinese proverb warns, “The fire you kindle for your enemy often burns you more than him.” How is this true of Type A people?

Type A people frequently experience negative emotions (anger, impatience), during which the sympathetic nervous system diverts blood away from the liver. This leaves fat and cholesterol circulating in the bloodstream for deposit near the heart and other organs, increasing the risk of heart disease and other health problems. Thus, Type A people actually harm themselves by directing anger at others

To cope with stress when we feel in control of our world, we tend to use _____ focused strategies. To cope with stress when we believe we cannot change a situation, we tend to use _____ focused strategies

problem; emotion

Which of the following emotion regulation strategies tends to lead to fewer positive emotions and more negative emotions

a. reappraisal

b. suppression

c. situation selection

b. suppression

What are some of the tactics we can use to successfully manage the stress we cannot avoid?

Aerobic exercise, relaxation, medication, and active spiritual engagement

When faced with a situation over which you feel you have litle control, you are more likely to turn to _____-focused coping

emotion

Seligman’s classic research showed that a dog will respond with learned helplessness if it has received repeated shocks and has has

a. the opportunity to escape

b. no control over the shocks

c. pain or discomfort

d. no food or water prior to the shocks

b. no control over the shocks

When nursing home residents take an active part in managing their own care and surroundings, their morale and health tend to improve. Such findings indicate that people do better when they experience an ____ locus of control

internal

How does accepting our feelings help us regulate our emotions more healthfully?

BY allowing ourselves to feel our natural negative and positive emotions, we are better able to navigate the realities of our lives-including good times and bad times. Suppressing or ignoring our feelings has negative consequences, leaving us less able to manage stress or build authentic relationships

People who have close relationships are less likely to die prematurely than those who do not, support the idea that

a. social ties can be a source of stress

b. gender influences longevity

c. Type A behavior is responsible for many premature deaths

d. social support has a beneficial effect on health

d. social support has a beneficial effect on health

Because it triggers the release of mood-boosting neurotransmitters, such as norepinephrine, serotonin, and the endorphins, ____ exercise raises energy levels and helps alleviate depression and anxiety.

aerobic

Research on the faith factor has found that

a. pessimists tend to be healthier than optimists

b. our expectations influence our feelings of stress

c. religiously active people tend to outlive those who are not religiously active

d. religious engagement promotes social isolation and repression

c. religiously active people tend to outlive those who are not religiously active

Which one of the following is an effective strategy for reducing angry feelings?

a. retaliate verbally or physically

b. wait or “simmer down”

c. express anger in our behavior

d. review the grievance silently

b. wait or simmer down

Which of the following factors does not predict self-reported happiness

a. age

b. personality traits

c. sleep and exercise

d. active religious faith

a. age

One of the most consistent findings of psychological research is that happy people are also

a. more likely to express anger

b. generally luckier than others

c. concentrated in the wealthier nations

d. more likely to help others

d. more likely to help others

_____ psychology is a scientific field of study focused on how humans thrive and flourish

positive

After moving to a new apartment, you find the street noise irritatingly loud, but after a while it no longer bothers you. This reaction illustrates the

a. relative deprivation principle

b. adaptation-level phenomenon

c. feel-good, do-good phenomenon

d. catharsis principle

b. adaptation-level phenomenon

There will always be someone more successful, more accomplished, or more popular with whom to compare ourselves. In psychology, this phenomenon is referred to as the ______ _____ principle

relative deprivation

Which parts of the brain are important for implicit memory processing, and which parts play a key role in explicit memory processing

The cerebellum and basal ganglia are important for implicit memory processing, and the frontal lobes and hippocampus are key to explicit memory formation

Leslie, who has experienced brain damage in an accident, can remember how to tie shoes but has a hard time remembering anything you say during a conversation. How can implicit versus explicit information processing explain what’s going on here?

Our explicit conscious memories of facts and episodes differ from our implict memories of skills (such as tying shoelaces) and classically conditioned responses. The parts of the brain involved in explicit memory processing (the frontal lobes and hippocampus) may have sustained damage in the accident, while the parts involved in implicit memory processing (the cerebellum and basal ganglia) appear to have escaped harm.

Which brain area responds to stress hormones by helping to create stronger memories?

the amygdala

increased efficiency at the synapses is evidence of the neural basis of learning and memory. This is called ______-_______ ______

long-term potentiation

What is priming

Priming is the activation (often without our awareness) of associations. Seeing a gun, for example, might temporarily predispose someone to interpret an ambiguous face as threatening or to recall a boss as nasty

When tested immediately after viewing a list of words, we tend to recall the first and last items best, which is known as the ______ ____ effect

serial position

The hippocampus seems to function as a

a. temporary processing site for explicit memories

b. temporary processing site for implicit memories

c. permanent storage area for emotion-based memories

d. permanent storage area for unconscious memories

a. temporary processing site for explicit memories

Hippocampus damage typically leaves people unable to learn new facts or recall recent events. However, they may be able to learn new skills, such as riding a bicycle, which is an _____ memory

implicit

Long-term potentiation refers to

a. emotion-triggered hormonal changes

b. the role of the hippocampus in processing explicit memories

d. the potential for learning in late adulthood

c. an increase in a cell’s firing potential

specific odors, visual images, emotions, or other associations that help us access a memory are examples of ______ ______

retrieval cues

when you feels sad, why might it help to look at pictures that reawaken some of your best memories?

Memories are stored within a web of many associations, one of which is mood. When you recall happy movements from your past, you activate these positive links. You may then experience mood-congruent memory and recall other happy movements, which could improve your mood and brighten your interpretation of current events

When tested immediately after viewing a list of words, people tend to recall the first and last items more readily than those in the middle. When retested after a delay, they are most likely to recall

a. the first items on the list

b. the first and last items on the list

c. a few items at random

d. the last items on the list

a. the first items on the list

What are three ways we forget, and how does each of these happen?

First, through encoding failure: Unattended information never entered our memory system. Second, through storage decay; Information fades from our memory. Third, through retrieval failure: We cannot access stored information accurately, sometimes due to interference or motivated forgetting

Freud believed (through many researchers doubt) that we ____ unacceptable memories to minimize anxiety

repress

What might life be like if we remembered all our waking experiences and all our dreams?

Real experiences would be confused with those we dreamed. When seeing people we know, we might, therefore, be unsure whether we were reacting to something they previously did or to something we dreamed they did

Imagine being a jury member in a trial for a parent accused of sexual abuse based on a recovered memory. What insights from memory research should you share with the rest of the jury

It will be important to remember the key points agreed upon by most researchers and professional associations: Sexual abuse, injustice, forgetting, and memory construction all happen; recovered memories are common; memories from before age 4 are unreliable; memories claimed to be recovered through hypnosis are especially unreliable; and memories, whether real or false, can be emotionally upsetting

Which memory strategies can help you study smarter and retain more information?

Spending more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material to boost long-term recall. Consider a study group so you can verbalize your learning. Schedule spaced (not crammed) study times. Make the material personally meaningful, with well-organized and vivid associations. Refresh your memory by returning to contexts and moods to activate retrieval cues. Use mnemonic devices. Minimize proactive and retroactive interference. Plan ahead to ensure a complete night’s sleep. test yourself repeatedly-retrieval practice is a proven retention strategy

When forgetting is due to encoding failure, information has not been transferred from

a. the environment into sensory memory

b. sensory memory into long-term memory

c. long term memory into short-term memory

d. short-term memory into long-term memory

d. short-term memory into long-term memory

Ebbinghaus’s forgetting curve shows that after an inital decline, memory for novel information tends to

a. increase slightly

b. decrease noticeably

c. decrease greatly

d. level off

d. level off

You will experience less _____ interference if you learn new material in the hour before sleep than you will if you learn it before turning to another subject

retroactive

Freud proposed that painful or unacceptable memories are blocked from consciousness through a mechanism called

repression

One reason false memories form is our tendency to fill in memory gaps with our reasonable guesses and assumptions, sometimes based on misleading information. This tendency is an example of

a. proactive interference

b. the misinformation effect

c. retroactive interference

d. the forgetting curve

b. the misinformation effect

Eliza’s family loves to tell the story of how she “stole the show” as a 2-year-old, dancing at her aunt’s wedding reception. Even though she was so young, Eliza says she can recall the event clearly. How might Eliza have formed this memory?

Eliza’s immature hippocampus and minimal verbal skills made it impossible for her to encode an explicit memory of the wedding reception at the age of two. It’s more likely that Eliza learned information (from hearing the story repeatedly) that she eventually constructed into a memory that feels very real

We may recognize a face at a social gathering but be unable to remember how we know that person. This is an example of ______ _______.

source amnesia

When a situation triggers the feeling that “I’ve been here before,” you are experiencing ______ _____

deja vu

Children can be accurate eyewitnesses if

a. interviewers give the children hints about what really happened

b. a neutral person asks nonleading questions soon after the event

c. the children have a chance to talk with involved adults before the interview

d. interviewers use precise technical and medical terms

b. a neutral person asks nonleading questions soon after the event

Memory researchers involved in the study of memories of abuse tend to disagree with some therapists about which of the following statements

a. memories of events that happened before age 4 are not reliable

b. we tend to repress extremely upsetting memories

c. memories can be emotionally upsetting

d. sexual abuse happens

b. we tend to repress extremely upsetting memories

How does the existence of savant syndrome support Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences?

People with savant syndrome have limited mental ability overall but possess one or more exceptional skills. According to Howard Gardner, this suggest that our abilities come in separate packaged rather than being fully expressed by one general intelligence that encompasses all of our talents

How does the Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory of intelligence integrate the idea of having general intelligence as well as specific abilities

The CHC theory proposes that there is a general ability based on two factors-fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence-but also that there are more specific abilities, such as reading and writing ability, memory capacity, and processing speed

Charles Spearmen suggested we have one ______ ______ underlying success across a variety of intellectual abilities

general intelligence

The existence of savant syndrome seems to support

a. Sternberg’s distinction among three types of intelligence

b. criticism of multiple intelligence theories

c. theories of multiple intelligences

d. Thorndike’s view of social intelligence

c. theories of multiple intelligences

Sternberg’s three types of intelligence are ______, ________, and ______

analytical; creative; practical

Emotionally intelligent people tend to

a. seek immediate gratification

b. understand their own emotions but not those of others

c. understand others’ emotions but not their own

d. succeed in their careers

d. succeed in their careers

What did Binet hope to achieve by establishing a child’s mental age?

Binet hoped that determining the child’s mental age (the age that typically corresponds to a certain level of performance) would help identify appropriate school placements

What is the IQ score of a 4-year-old with a mental age of 5?

125 (5/4×100)

An employer with a pool of applicants for a single available position is interested in testing each applicant’s potential. To determine that, she should use an ______ test. That same employer, wishing to test the effectiveness of a new, on-the-job training problem, would be wise to use an _____ test

aptitude; achievement

What are the three criteria that a psychological test must meet in order to be widely accepted? Explain.

A psychological test must be standardized (pretested on a representative sample of people), reliable (yielding consistent results), and valid (measuirng and predicting what it is supposed to).

A correlation of -1.00 represents perfect ____ between two sets of scores: As one score goes up, the other score goes _____. A correlation of _____ represents no association. The highest correlation, +1.00, represents perfect _____: As the first score goes up, the other score goes ____.

disagreement; down; zero; agreement; up

Researcher A wants to study how intelligence changes over the life span. Researcher B wants to study the intelligence of people who are now at various life stages. Which researcher should use the cross-sectional method, and which the longitudinal method?

Researcher A should develop a longitudinal study to examine how intelligence changes in the same people over the life span. Researcher B should develop a cross-sectional study to examine the intelligence of people now at various life stages

The IQ score of a 6-year-old Shanice, who has a measured mental age of 9, would be

a. 67

b. 133

c. 86

d. 150

d. 150

The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) is best able to tell us

a. about innate intelligence among groups

b. whether the test-taker will succeed in a job

c. how the test-taker compares with other adults in vocabulary and arithmetic reasoning

d. whether the test-taker has specific skills for music and the performing arts

c. how the test-taker compares with other adults in vocabulary and arithmetic reasoning

The Stanford-Binet, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children yield consistent results, for example on retesting. In other words, these tests have high

reliability

Which of the following is NOT a possible explanation for the fact that people with higher intelligence scores tend to live longer, healthier lives?

a. intelligence facilitates more education, better jobs, and a healthier environment

b. intelligence encourages a more health-promoting lifestyle

c. Intelligent people have slower reaction times, so are less likely to put themselves at risk

d. prenatal events or early childhood illnesses could influence both intelligence and health

c. Intelligent people have slower reaction times, so are less likely to put themselves at risk

Use the concepts of Gc and Gf to explain why writers tend to produce their most creative work later in life, while scientists often hit their peak much earlier

Writers’ work relies more on Gc (crystallized intelligence)-accumulated knowledge that increases with age. For top performance, scientists doing research may need more Gf (the speedy and abstract reasoning of fluid intelligence), which tends to decrease with age

A check on your understanding of heritability: If environments become more equal, the heritability of intelligence will

a. increase

b. decrease

c. be unchanged

a. increase (heritability-variation within a group explained by genetic influences-will increase as environmental variation decreases.

The heritability of intelligence scores will be greater in a society of equal opportunity than in a society of extreme inequality between the working poor and billionaires. Why?

Perfect equal opportunity would create 100 percent heritability, because genes alone would account for any human differences.

What is the difference between a test that is culturally biased and a test that is scientifically biased?

A test may be culturally biased (unfair) if higher scores are achieved by those with certain cultural experiences. That same test is not scientifically biased as long as it has predictive validity- if it predicts what it is supposed to predict. For example, the SAT may favor those with experience in the U.S. school system, but it does still accurately predict U.S. college success.