MUST KNOW TERMS (1450-1648)

Humanists

Scholars and thinkers who focused on human potential and achievements while studying classical Greek and Roman texts.

Protestants

Christians who separated from the Catholic Church during the Reformation, criticizing corruption and demanding reforms based on scripture.

Copernicus

Renaissance astronomer who introduced the heliocentric model, placing the sun at the center of the universe.

Galileo

Italian scientist known for using a telescope to confirm heliocentric theory and discovering moons of Jupiter.

Newton

English physicist and mathematician who formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation.

William Harvey

English physician who discovered that blood circulates continuously through the body and is pumped by the heart.

Francis Bacon

Philosopher who promoted empiricism and helped shape the scientific method.

Rene Descartes

French thinker known for emphasizing deductive reasoning and rational thought.

Machiavelli

Political philosopher who wrote The Prince, advising rulers to be pragmatic and sometimes ruthless.

Erasmus

Dutch humanist who supported reforming the Church through education rather than breaking away.

Martin Luther

German monk who launched the Protestant Reformation by challenging Church corruption.

John Calvin

Protestant reformer known for his belief in predestination and influence on strict religious communities.

Anabaptists

Radical reformers who rejected infant baptism and promoted separation of church and state.

Henry VIII

English king who broke from the Catholic Church to create the Church of England.

Elizabeth I

Daughter of Henry VIII who established Protestantism in England and ruled during a golden age.

Hapsburgs

Powerful royal family that ruled over large parts of Europe, known for dynastic marriages.

Ferdinand and Isabella

Spanish monarchs who completed the Reconquista and enforced religious unity through the Inquisition.

Charles V

Holy Roman Emperor during the Reformation who tried to stop the spread of Protestantism.

Ecclesiastical

Related to the Christian Church or its clergy, especially in terms of structure and authority.

Classical

Referring to the ancient cultures of Greece and Rome admired by Renaissance thinkers.

Secularism

Focus on worldly subjects and values, especially in art and politics.

Printing Press

Invented by Gutenberg, it allowed for mass production of books and rapid dissemination of ideas.

Theology

The academic study of religious beliefs, examining God and the nature of faith.

Vernacular

The everyday language spoken by ordinary people, as opposed to Latin used by scholars.

Geometric Perspective

An art technique creating depth and space using math and vanishing points.

Patronage

Support given to artists and scholars by wealthy individuals or institutions.

Naturalism

Artistic style focused on realistically depicting figures and nature.

Mannerist

Art style following the High Renaissance, characterized by exaggerated poses.

Baroque

A grand, emotional style in art and architecture aimed at inspiring awe.

Heliocentric

Theory that the sun is at the center of the universe, challenging Church beliefs.

Inductive Reasoning

A method of logic that draws general conclusions from specific observations.

Deductive Reasoning

Starting with a general principle and applying it to reach a specific conclusion.

Scientific Method

A systematic process of experimentation and observation to gain knowledge.

Alchemy

A mix of science and magic aiming to transform materials, a precursor to modern chemistry.

Astrology

The belief that stars and planets influence human behavior and earthly events.

Sovereignty

The supreme authority of a ruler or state to govern itself.

New Monarchies

Kings and queens who centralized power in the late 15th and 16th centuries.

Holy Roman Empire

A loose confederation of German-speaking states ruled by an emperor.

The Prince

A political guide by Machiavelli advising rulers to be cunning and strategic.

Bureaucracy

A system of government officials and departments managing laws and policies.

Parliament

A legislative body in England helping to check the power of monarchs.

Religious Pluralism

The acceptance of multiple religions coexisting within one society.

Jesuit Order

A Catholic religious group focused on education and missionary work.

Mercantilism

An economic theory emphasizing government control of trade to accumulate wealth.

Nuclear Family

A family unit consisting of two parents and their children.

Italian Renaissance

Cultural revival in Italy beginning in the 1300s, flourishing in art and humanism.

Peace of Westphalia (1648)

Treaties that ended the Thirty Years’ War and established state sovereignty.

English Civil War (1642–1651)

War between monarchy supporters and Parliament leading to the temporary overthrow of kings.

Protestant Reformation

Major movement started by Martin Luther challenging the Catholic Church.

Catholic Reformation (Counter-Reformation)

Catholic Church response aimed at reforming corruption and reaffirming beliefs.

Council of Trent (1545–1563)

Meeting of Catholic leaders addressing Protestant ideas and reforming the church.

French Wars of Religion (1562–1598)

Violent conflicts between Catholics and Protestants in France.

Edict of Nantes (1598)

Law granting religious tolerance to French Protestants, bringing peace after wars.

Columbian Exchange

Transfer of plants, animals, people, and goods between Europe and the Americas.

Great Famine / Great Plague / Little Ice Age

Combination of crises causing widespread suffering in the late Middle Ages.

War of the Roses (1455–1487)

Civil war in England between two royal families over the throne.

Reconquista

Wars to reclaim land in Spain from Muslim rule, ending in 1492.

Spanish Inquisition

Court system to punish heresy and ensure religious uniformity in Spain.

Colonization

European control of overseas lands for wealth and power.

Peace of Augsburg (1555)

Treaty allowing rulers in the Holy Roman Empire to choose their state religion.

Defeat of the Spanish Armada (1588)

When England, under Elizabeth I, defeated Spain's navy, shifting naval power.

Scientific Revolution

Period of discovery that challenged traditional views of nature and the universe.

Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648)

Destructive conflict in the Holy Roman Empire, rooted in both religious and political issues.