MUST KNOW TERMS (1450-1648)
1450–1500
Humanism: The intellectual movement began, emphasizing the study of classical texts to improve society. Humanists like Petrarch and Erasmus laid the groundwork for the Renaissance, advocating the return to Greek and Roman ideals.
Printing Press (c. 1440): Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press, revolutionizing the spread of knowledge. It made books cheaper and more accessible, playing a critical role in spreading Renaissance and Reformation ideas.
War of the Roses (1455–1487): A series of civil wars between the Lancasters and Yorks in England. The war ended with the rise of the Tudor dynasty under Henry VII, which led to greater political stability in England.
Reconquista (ended 1492): The final phase of the Christian reconquest of Spain, culminating in the capture of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella, expelling Muslims from the Iberian Peninsula.
Columbian Exchange (began 1492): Following Christopher Columbus’s voyages, goods, crops, animals, and diseases began circulating between the Old and New Worlds, altering global economies and ecosystems.
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1500–1550
Protestant Reformation (1517): Initiated by Martin Luther with his 95 Theses, challenging the Catholic Church’s corruption, especially the sale of indulgences. His actions sparked the creation of new Protestant denominations.
The Prince (1513): Written by Niccolò Machiavelli, this treatise on political power and leadership outlined pragmatic statecraft, with the famous assertion that "the ends justify the means."
Council of Trent (1545–1563): The Catholic Church convened this council to respond to the Protestant Reformation, affirming Catholic doctrines, correcting abuses, and initiating reforms within the Church.
Charles V becomes Holy Roman Emperor (1519): Charles V ruled over an empire that included Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, and parts of Italy. His reign was marked by religious conflict and the rise of Protestantism.
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1550–1600
Catholic Reformation (Counter-Reformation): A response by the Catholic Church to the Protestant Reformation, led by the Jesuit Order under Ignatius of Loyola, aiming to reform the Church from within and stop the spread of Protestantism.
French Wars of Religion (1562–1598): A series of religious civil wars between French Catholics and Huguenots (Protestants). The wars culminated in the Edict of Nantes (1598), which granted religious freedom to Huguenots.
Edict of Nantes (1598): Issued by Henry IV of France, this edict granted religious freedom to Huguenots and ended the French Wars of Religion, marking a step toward religious tolerance.
Defeat of the Spanish Armada (1588): Philip II of Spain's attempt to invade England was thwarted by the English navy under Queen Elizabeth I, weakening Spanish naval dominance.
Theology: The study of religious doctrines continued to influence political and cultural developments across Europe, particularly during the Reformation and Counter-Reformation periods.
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1600–1648
Scientific Revolution (c. 1543–1700): This intellectual movement focused on the development of modern science. Key figures included Copernicus, who proposed the heliocentric model, and Galileo, whose observations with the telescope supported Copernican theory.
Thirty Years' War (1618–1648): A devastating conflict that began as a religious struggle between Catholics and Protestants in the Holy Roman Empire but evolved into a broader European conflict involving many powers. It ended with the Peace of Westphalia (1648), which reshaped Europe’s political and religious landscape.
Heliocentric: The model of the universe proposed by Copernicus, suggesting that the Sun, not the Earth, was at the center of the solar system. This theory was later supported by Galileo and Johannes Kepler.
Inductive Reasoning: Promoted by Francis Bacon, this approach to science emphasized the importance of observation and experimentation in deriving general principles from specific observations.
Deductive Reasoning: René Descartes's method of reasoning, which began with general principles and worked toward specific conclusions. Descartes famously declared, Cogito, ergo sum ("I think, therefore I am").
Scientific Method: A systematic approach to inquiry that combined observation, experimentation, and inductive/deductive reasoning, laid out by thinkers like Bacon and Descartes, helping to shape modern science.
Naturalism: An artistic style that emerged during the Renaissance and continued into the Baroque period, aiming for a realistic representation of the human figure and nature. It was exemplified by artists like Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo.
Mannerist: An artistic movement that emerged after the High Renaissance, marked by elongated forms, exaggerated proportions, and an emphasis on emotion. El Greco is a famous example of a mannerist artist.
Baroque: An artistic style that emerged in the early 17th century, characterized by dramatic use of light, strong contrasts, and emotional intensity. Caravaggio and Peter Paul Rubens were prominent Baroque artists.
Alchemy: A precursor to modern chemistry, alchemists sought to transform base metals into gold and discover the philosopher’s stone. Although discredited by the Scientific Revolution, it laid the groundwork for experimental science.
Astrology: The study of celestial bodies' influence on human affairs. Popular during the early modern period, astrology was closely linked to the development of astronomy and was practiced by figures like Tycho Brahe.
Sovereignty: The idea that the state has supreme authority over its territory and people, independent of external interference. This principle was solidified in the Treaty of Westphalia (1648), which ended the Thirty Years’ War.
New Monarchies: The emerging centralized states of the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance. Rulers like Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain and Louis XI of France built strong, centralized governments.
Holy Roman Empire: A multi-ethnic complex of territories in Central Europe, which had significant influence on the Thirty Years' War. The peace treaties of Westphalia (1648) significantly weakened the Empire’s power.
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Key People (1450–1648)
Martin Luther (1483–1546): Initiated the Protestant Reformation by challenging the Catholic Church's practices, particularly the sale of indulgences.
John Calvin (1509–1564): Leader of the Reformed tradition, advocating for predestination and creating Calvinism, a major Protestant denomination.
Erasmus (1466–1536): A Dutch humanist who criticized the Catholic Church and sought reform through the promotion of education and scripture study.
Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527): Author of The Prince, advocating for practical, sometimes ruthless, political power and leadership.
Galileo Galilei (1564–1642): An Italian astronomer and physicist who supported the heliocentric theory and made groundbreaking discoveries in astronomy.
Isaac Newton (1642–1727): While born at the end of this period, his work in physics and mathematics, including the laws of motion and gravity, would greatly influence the Scientific Revolution.
Ferdinand and Isabella (1452–1504): Spanish monarchs who completed the Reconquista, sponsored Christopher Columbus, and established the Spanish Inquisition.
Henry VIII (1491–1547): King of England who broke with the Catholic Church to form the Church of England in order to annul his marriage.
Elizabeth I (1533–1603): Queen of England, known for her defeat of the Spanish Armada and establishing Protestantism in England.
Charles V (1500–1558): Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain whose empire spanned much of Europe, and who faced religious and political challenges during the Reformation.