BIO1010 Midterm

Steps of the Scientific Method

Question, Hypothesis, Experiment, Analyze Results, Conclusion

Control (Experiment)

Component of experiment that remains unchanged, serves as a point of comparison.

Dependent Variable

The outcome in an experiment or study that changes in response to manipulations of the independent variable. It's the variable that researchers are trying to measure, explain, or predict.

Independent Variable

An independent variable is the factor in an experiment or study that is manipulated or changed by the researcher to observe its effect on the dependent variable. It's called "independent" because its value does not depend on other variables in the experiment.

The Definition of Life (What Makes Something Alive?)

Cellular organization, must have a metabolism (the ability to process energy), homeostasis (can maintain a stable internal environment), grow and develop over time, can reproduce, respond to stimuli, and can evolve.

Scientific Theory

A (backed up) explanation for a natural phenomenon based on evidence found via the scientific method. Explains “why” or “how” something is.

Darwin’s Contribution to Biology

Proposed and researched the theory of biological evolution by “Natural Selection”.

Convergent Evolution

When difference species evolve similar traits due to experiencing similar environmental pressures. (Ex. Sharks, dolphins, and fish all having a streamlined body shape).

Divergent Evolution

Species that share a common ancestor adapting new traits as a result of their environment, resulting in speciation.

Speciation and How it Happens

The evolutionary process that creates new species by splitting a single species into to two or more genetically distinct species. Happens when a group within a species becomes reproductively isolated and evolves unique characteristics.

Natural Selection Requirements

In a population there needs to be genetic variation for natural selection to occur. If all organisms were the same, there would be no drive to pick one over the other.

Mutation (Evolutionary Force)

The force that generates genetic variation.

Gene Flow (Evolutionary Force)

New genes are introduced into a population through breeding with an organism from a different population.

Genetic Drift (Evolutionary Force)

When the frequency of genes in a population changes randomly due to unforeseen circumstances rather than natural selection. Generally occurs in small populations.

Natural Selection (Evolutionary Force)

Individuals with certain genes are more likely than other to reproduce as they are better adapted to their environment. They reproduce and pass on their genes to the next generation.

Four Levels of Ecology

Organism, Population, Community, Ecosystem

What is Studied in Organismal Ecology(?)

Organismal ecology studies adaptations of physical structure, internal bodily functions, and behaviors.

Energy Allocation in Reproduction

Organisms may have one reproductive event where they use all energy and die after (semelparity). Organisms can reproduce multiple times and use energy in smaller increments via. breeding seasons, multiple offspring, etc. (iteroparity).

Population Growth/Decline

Growth: High birth rate, low death rate, immigration. Decline: Environmental changes, predation, food scarcity, disease, etc.

Innate Behaviors in Population

Instincts and reflexes (ex. Babies sucking reflect, spider spinning web, dogs drooling).

Learned Behaviors in Population

Habituation (getting used to stuff), associative learning (put two and two together), classical conditioning (pavlov’s dog), operant conditioning (reward and punishment).

Symbiosis

Long term close relationship between two different species/organisms.

Types of Symbiosis

Mutualism (both benefit), Commensalism (one benefits, other unaffected), Parasitism (one benefits, one is harmed).

Generalized vs. Specialized Species

Generalized: Species that has adapted to various environments with broad diets. Specialized: Has adapted to a specific environment, cannot leave, has a limited diet.

Human Impact on Biogeochemical Cycles

Altering the natural flow of elements like carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus with deforestation, emissions, waste disposal, etc. Results in climate change, biodiversity loss etc.

Distribution of Living Things

Primarily influenced by latitude and elevation. Closer to the equator, more biodiversity. Includes biotic and abiotic factors like predation, soil, human involvement etc.

Pioneer Species

First organisms to colonize a new/recently disturbed environment (usually plants/fungi).

Foundational Species

Organisms that play a critical role in ecosystem structure by providing biodiversity.

Keystone Species

Organism with a large impact on it’s ecosystem regardless of its abundance. If a keystone species was removed the ecosystem as a whole would fail.

Links in Food Chains (Trophic Level)

Each link is called a tropic level, producers are at the bottom, primary consumers next, secondary consumers, tertiary consumers and so on.

Producers (Trophic Level)

Plants and algae that can create their own food via photosynthesis.

Invertebrates

An animal lacking a backbone (Arthropoda, molluska, etc.)

Vertebrates

Animals with a bony skeleton and segmented spinal column—as well as a larger brain enclosed in a skull.

Endothermic

An organism that can generate it’s own body heat.

Ectothermic

An organism that cannot generate it’s own body heat, therefore conserving energy.

Cambrian Explosion

Period in history 541 million years ago, where rapid evolution occurred and lead to the appearance of most modern phylum.

Cambrian Explosion Cause

Not known 100% for certain, but it is believed to have been cause by an increase in oxygen in the atmosphere and shallow ocean and the end of glacial conditions.

Sessile vs. Motile Pros and Cons

Sessile: organism that cannot move on their own. Motile: organism that can move on their own. Sessile creatures are energy efficient and can focus on reproduction, but are vulnerable to predators. Motile creatures can move to more favorable environments/avoid threats, but at a high energy cost.

Mammal Characteristics

Hair or Fur, Mammary Glands (milk), Ear bones, diaphragm, complex, etc.

Bioenergetics

Science/Study that focuses on how cells transform energy, how ATP is produced, stored, consumed, etc.

Organismal Organization (5 Levels)

Cells, Tissues, Organs, Organ Systems, Organisms

Four Tissue Types

Epithelial (skin), Connective, Muscle, Nervous

Epithelial Tissue

Protects body, lines organs and body cavity. Skin is epithelial tissue.

Connective Tissue

Supports and binds other tissues together. Adipose, cartilage, etc.

Muscle Tissue

Responsible for movement, as well as moving blood, food, and waste through the body.

Nervous Tissue

Carries messages to and from different parts of our body. Made up of neurons.

Homeostasis

Ability to self-regulate in the face of external change and continue to maintain equilibrium. Ex. body temp, blood pressure.

Four Steps of Food Processing

Ingestion, digestion, absorption, elimination.

Ingestion

The act of putting food/liquid into mouth.

Digestion

Biochemical process of breaking down food in the mouth, stomach, and small intestine.

Absorption

Uptake of digested nutrients into the bloodstream via small intestine.

Elimination

Removal of undigested food and waste from body through excretory system.

Primary Components of Food (3)

Carbohydrates, fats(lipids), and proteins.

Carbohydrates

Starches and sugar (glucose) that provides our cells with energy.

Fats/Lipids

Molecules that stick around and provide long-term energy for our bodies, also helps with building tissues and absorbing vitamins.

Proteins

Complex macromolecules that are the building blocks for muscles, skin, bones, and hair.

Glycogen

A storage form of glucose—our body’s main energy source, created by glycogenesis.

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

The nitrogenous based molecule that stores and provides energy for cells in all living organisms.

Neurons & Glia

Cells in the nervous system. Glia support and protect neurons, they form myelin, maintain homeostasis, and regulate metabolism. Neurons are the basic unit in the nervous system, they communicate and are responsible for motor commands, electrical signals, and sensory input.

Neuron Communication

Neurons use electrical and chemical signals to communicate at the synapse, the small gap between other neurons. These signals are actually chemicals, called neurotransmitters.

Synapse Types

Chemical and Electrical

Chemical Synapse

Most common synapse, use neurotransmitters to transmit signals between neurons.

Electrical Synapse

Synapse that allows electrical currents to pass directly between neurons via specialized membranes.

The Five Senses

Sight, smell, hearing, taste, touch.

Sensory Activation/Stimulation

The process of stimulating one or more of the senses.

Basic Hormone Types (3)

Peptide, Amino, Lipid

Lipid Hormones

Include steroid hormones, involved in metabolism, sexual development etc.

Amino Hormones

Includes hormones produced by adrenal glands, ex. Epinephrine

Peptide Hormones

Produced by endocrine glands, control energy and homeostasis ex. oxytocin and insulin.

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

Chemical produced in brain that regulates body’s water balance and sodium levels.

Estrogen

A hormone that plays a vital role in the development and regulation of the female reproductive system and secondary sex characteristics.

Insulin

A naturally occurring hormone your pancreas makes that's essential for allowing your body to use sugar (glucose) for energy.

Growth Hormone (HDH)

A natural hormone your pituitary gland makes and releases that acts on many parts of the body to promote growth in children.

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

A hormone that regulates the production of cortisol and other hormones in the body.

Epinephrine (Adrenaline)

A hormone and neurotransmitter that plays a key role in the body's fight-or-flight response.

Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline)

A hormone and neurotransmitter that plays a key role in the body's fight-or-flight response to stress and low blood pressure. Regulates cognitive function and stress.

Aldosterone

Helps regulate the body's water and salt balance, and blood pressure.

Skeletal Designs

Hydrostatic skeleton, exoskeleton, and endoskeleton.

Hydrostatic Skeleton

A skeleton that uses fluid pressure to support an organism and allow it to move and change shape.

Axial Skeleton

Made up of 80 bones in the central core of the body, including the skull, ears, neck, back, and ribcage. These bones protect the brain, spinal cord, heart, lungs, and other important organs.

Appendicular Skeleton

The part of the body that includes the bones of the arms, legs, hands, feet, shoulders, and pelvis. Designed for increased mobility and locomotion.

Human Skeleton Bone Types (5)

Long bones, short bones, flat bones, irregular bones, sesamoid bones.

Stages of Bone Repair (4)

Hematoma formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation, remodeling.

Muscle Tissue Types (3)

Smooth (organs), skeletal (bones), cardiac (heart).

Role of Hemoglobin

Primary function is to transport oxygen throughout the body by binding to oxygen molecules in the lungs and releasing them to tissues.

Respiratory System Infection Prevention

Mucous and cilia filter our debris/bacteria/virus.

Carbon Dioxide Removal

The body removes carbon dioxide through the lungs, where it is transported by the bloodstream from cells throughout the body and then exhaled(exhalation) as a waste gas during breathing; this process is called gas exchange.

B-Cells

White blood cell that produces antibodies to protect from infection.

Antibodies

Proteins produced by the body's immune system to identify and neutralize harmful substances, called antigens.

Antibodies (How they Function)

When antibodies attach to an antigen (think a lock–key configuration), it signals other parts of the immune system to attack and destroy the invaders.

Fertilization

The process that occurs when a sperm and egg unite to form a zygote, which marks the beginning of pregnancy.

Methods of Fertilization

Internal and External

Oviparity (Fertilization)

Egg laid outside of the female’s body and fertilized externally.

Ovoviparity

Fertilized egg is retained in female’s body, where it is developed and nourished from the yolk of the egg.

Viviparity

Young develop within the female and receive nourishment directly from mother via placenta.

Asexual Reproduction

A type of reproduction that only requires one parent and produces offspring that are genetically identical to the parent. It doesn't involve the fusion of gametes or a change in the number of chromosomes.

Sexual Reproduction

A biological process that involves the fusion of two gametes, or reproductive cells, to create a zygote that develops into a new organism.

Innate Immune System

Immunity that is present at birth and lasts a person's entire life. Innate immunity is the first response of the body's immune system to a harmful foreign substance. Ex. skin

Adaptive Immune System

A part of the body's immune system that responds to foreign substances, like viruses and bacteria, by creating specialized cells and antibodies to attack and destroy them. Basically a specialized upgrade of innate immunity.