CONSERVATISM

Who encapsulates the idea of traditional conservatism?

How did his ideas come about?

Edmund Burke

-Through the French Revolution whereby he claimed that the rebel’s attempt to revolutionise society based on abstract principles was wrong as human nature is flawed and so utopian projects may have negative impacts

INTRO TO CONSERVATISM

What is one nation conservatism?

Basically traditional conservatism around saving tradition and the need for a state to intervene to protect this etc

• Oakeshott and Burke

What is New Right Conservatism?

some market intervention etc but not state really except for rights protecti

• Ayn Rand 

• Robert Nozick

HUMAN NATURE

Human Imperfection

What are the three ways in which conservatives agree humans are imperfect?

Physiologically, Intellectually and Morally

What book did Edmund Burke write?

What year?

-Reflections on the revolution in France

-1790

What quote did Burke use to describe the imperfectible nature of humans?

What does this mean?

Human beings have ‘ A dark side of our sentiments’ and that we cannot be simply ‘argued out of our vices’

-We are naturally inclined to indulge in vice and immorality as humans and so we have tendencies toward self-interest, pride, greed etc and so Burke believes in the importance of tradition and custom as ‘habits of order’ to restrain our vices and guide moral behaviour

What are psychological imperfections?

This is the idea that we crave safe security and a desire to know our position in society in order to avoid what Durkheim described as a sense of anomieWha

What is anomie?

A sense of unease created by the breaking down in values leading to the breakdown of bonds in communities

What book discusses this and what does it say?

Thomas Hobbes in his Leviathan argues that as the self interested, rational beings that we are we crave a position of peace which enables us to maintain our primary objective, survival. But that with human beings constantly in motion , clashing into and suspicious of other human beings , we will never achieve it.

What does this lead to?

A conception of an absolutist Leviathan state as an absolute, central power which alone can determine the means to achieve peace in society by enforcing cooperation and removing the temptation to exploit others— addressing not just political disorder but the psychological causes beneath it.

What are intellectual limitations?

This refers to the natural limits of human thinking and reasoning

What book talks about this?

Michael Oakeshott in his book ‘Rationalism in politics and Other essays’ argues that the world around us is inherently complex and unpredictable, as human beings, we do not have the mental faculties in order to make sense of a complex modern world and so people who propose changes in society based on ideological, abstract principles and not based on practical knowledge are bound to fail.

What does this lead to?

Oakeshott therefore supported the ideas of pragmatism , which are actions based on practical knowledge rather than abstract principles.

What did Ayn Rand believe in terms of human imperfection?

Ayn Rand believed humans are not inherently flawed, and pursuing one’s own rational self-interest is moral and natural rather than a sign of imperfection.

What book did she write?

‘The Virtue of Selfishness’ in which she believes that with the definition of virtue as concern with one’s own interest equating selfishness with evil has prevented the progress of mankind .She believed the self interested nature of humans is perfectly rational as she distinguished between destructive greed and rational pursuit of one’s own life, values, and happiness.

Rationality

What did Hobbes say in terms of human rationality?

He argued that human beings are rational and self interested, leading them to act in a way which preserves their main objective, survival .

Explain what it says in his book the Leviathan?

He describes the condition of humans in a society without a single sovereign government as ‘poor, solitary, nasty , brutish and short’ as you cannot trust anyone in the state of nature so you pre-empt their potential threats to your natural rights, hence creating a lack of contracts with each other and the lack of the maintenance of private property but because of the rational nature of humans they would form a covenant with the state in order to create the best conditions for humans to meet their survival needs

What would this lead to for society?

This produces a stable society where laws are enforced, disputes are regulated, and violence is reduced.

What did Rand argue in terms of rationality?

She argued that rationality is essential to mankind as it guides their virtue

What did she say in her book about this?

In The Virtue of Selfishness, Rand defines rationality as the primary moral virtue and the foundation of all others. She argues that reason is man’s only means of knowledge, and therefore every moral choice must be guided by the facts of reality, not by emotions, faith etc. From this, she concludes that a person must act according to rational self-interest: using reason to pursue one’s own life, values, and happiness as one’s highest moral purpose.

What does this lead to for society?

This leads to challenging the use of tradition as a means to guiding our actions as it restrains human endeavours and instead encourages innovation, personal responsibility, and merit-based achievement, rather than adhering to rules simply because “that’s how it’s always been done. As a result, society becomes dynamic and progress-oriented.

What did Nozick believe in regards to rationality in his book?

In the ‘Nature of Rationality’ he says that rational individuals are capable of using abstract concepts to pursue their self interests, not limited to just responding to events as instinct . Nozick claims that human beings have free will and the ability to regulate their life in a way which they themselves have identified as acceptable to them to give meaning to their lives.

What does this lead to for society?

It justifies the existence of a minimal state  because individuals are rational, autonomous self-owners who act according to inviolable principles and are the authors of their own lives, no state may legitimately impose goals on them, and therefore only the minimal state is compatible with their moral status.

What is technical knowledge?

This is the kind of knowledge you can write down in textbooks — formulas, procedures, and systems. Rationalists believe politics can be solved by designing perfect blueprints or ideologies (e.g., socialism, libertarianism).

What does Oakeshott say about rationalism?

In Oakeshott’s ‘Rationalism in Politics’ he criticises the concept of Rationalism and argues that politics cannot be run purely on abstract reasoning or technical knowledge but instead traditional knowledge as there is no consistent course of action that can be taken in every situation. So ideological politics is flawed as customs and tradition in which knowledge stems from experience always trump logically derived rules.

What does Burke say about rationality?

Burke argued that we should be cautious about relying solely on individuals’ private reasoning and instead place our trust in the accumulated wisdom of previous generations. He believed that traditions and customs, developed through long practice and experience, provide a more reliable guide for political and social life than abstract, theoretical reasoning. Reason alone is insufficient for navigating the complexities of society, so rational judgement must be grounded in the knowledge preserved and tested by history , hence his support of the Burkean Model

Individualism

What is individualism?

Individualism refers to the importance of the rights and freedoms of the individual

What book does Nozick use to talk about individualism and what are his views?

Robert Nozick in his ‘Anarchy , State and Utopia’ argues for the idea of the separateness of persons as each individual is seeking their own good in their own chosen way and that individuals have natural rights which exist in the state of nature and that everyone should be free to as they wish as long as they don’t infringe on these rights.

What does this lead to for society?

This leads to a society in which the state itself is only legitimate if its role is minimal and restricted to the protection of rights of life, liberty and property and not to achieve some social end

How does Burke view individualism?

Burke prioritises social liberty over the natural rights of individuals  as he argued that liberty is not unconnected and solitary but instead about social freedom and equality of restraint which can only be achieved through wise laws and a society in which humans thrive by living in harmony with each other whereby we focus on tradition and custom instead of our own interests .

What is the famous quote Burke uses around this topic?

He says ‘society is but a contract between the dead, the living and those yet to be born’

What does Hobbes say on individualism?

He says that we are rational individuals who have natural rights and that we have the right to prioritise ourselves and our own needs and so in the state of nature the individual is sovereign which as  a result means the social contract cannot exist but instead a covenant is required in which each individual joins a covenant with each other and then transfers power to a sovereign body

SOCIETY

Society vs Individual

How does Nozick view society vs individual?

Nozick values the importance of the individual in society above all else

What does Nozick say in his book?

He argues that in society we all have separate existences with our own individual lives as a result of our individualism we cannot use another person for the benefit of others and that is something is done which would harm someone for the sake of others this is infringing on their natural rights and so individuals have to be treated as’ ends in and of themselves’ rather than as a means to achieve some social good.

Does he still value the importance of community?

Yes he understand humans crave some socialising but believes that individuals should choose of their own free will communities that best serve their interests and also be free to exit at will.

What would this lead to?

A minimal state whereby individuals can try out diverse communities in response to evolving ideas from individuals

What does Rand say on society vs individual

Rand completely undervalues the existence of society stating that there is no such entity as a such as society’s importance is derived from the value of the individual above all else. She rejects any notion that society can impose moral obligations on individuals simply by being bigger” or higher as it has no moral status and so it should not be used to create moral law but simply used for the protection of rights of individuals through objective law.

How does Michael Oakeshott view the  importance of society?

He sees the individual as significant but still places value on the importance of the society

What does Oakeshott specifically say?

He argues that a ‘societas’ is a collection of people who are joined not by a common goal but the recognition that we live under the same framework of law, hence creating a form of virtue in the civic sense of understanding and respecting the common conditions of peaceful coexistence eg. common language .The relationship between individuals in societas is therefore non-instrumental: no one is used as a means to a collective project; we stand “side by side,” not “in line” behind a shared mission in the civil association. Oakeshott contrasts this with universitas (enterprise association), where society is organised around achieving a shared purpose, he believes treating society as an enterprise erodes freedom, because the state must then force people into the same goals, values, and outcomes.

What does this lead to?

This leads to a belief in the politics of scepticism whereby we should be cautious of a centralised authority and the idea that society could be perfected as the government should not be seen as an instrument of human achievement but simply a referee maintaining order.

How does Edmund Burke view the society vs individual?

He believes that society is more than the sum of its individual parts and claimed that society is necessary for cultivating virtue and guiding citizens moral behaviour. Burke claimed that our small, local institutions which he calls little platoons help us to develop social affections and responsibilities and help use to spread these values across the nation as to love the ‘Little platoon we belong to in society is the first principle of public affections’

What other quote is important when discussing society

‘Society is a partnership not only between those who are living but those who are living, who are dead and those who are to be born’

What does this lead Burke to emphasise?

The importance of tradition like family, neighbourhood, church, guild, community groups ,these are not created by abstract reason or political design; they grow organically over time.

Social Order and Hierarchy

What does Burke say about social order and hierarchy?

Due to the upbringing of aristocrats in terms of their education, leadership qualities due to the opportunities they have in the military that their elevated position in society is justified. Moreover, he argues that without a natural aristocracy there is ‘no nation’ and that is through the stewardship and guidance of the aristocracy that we reach a state of harmony as people.

What book did Burke discuss this in?

Letter from the New To the Old Whigs

What does this lead to?

It leads to the preservation of the hierarchal system to avoid the chaos that arises when power is suddenly handed to the inexperienced masses as aristocratic families accumulate wisdom and responsibility over generations and act as natural leaders through which society can be lead forward.

What does Thomas Hobbes believe on this idea?

He believes in the idea of foundational equality amongst human beings meaning we are all inherently equal and that in the state of nature even ‘ the weakest has the strength to kill the strongest’ and that it is due to this that as rational individuals we begin to pre-empt each others attacks as a way to preserve our own self interests, hence leading to the ‘poor, nasty, brutish and solitary’ society.

What does this lead to?

A Leviathan state

How do Rand’s ideas differ from others?

Rand only heavily prioritises the equality of rights in society so she believes that every person has the same right to life, liberty and property and the pursuit of national interest. However, she rejects the idea of equality of outcome as this restricts freedom and believes that ‘ all men should be free to make the most of their lives’ . In a truly free society, the most creative, productive, and rational individuals rise to the top. She sees this as the proper reward for value creation and personal responsibility.

Liberty

What does Burke believe about the idea of liberty?

For Burke true liberty is ordered liberty not doing what ever you want but having your will constrained and passions subjected to keep order in society. He believes that people when left to their raw passions become reckless and destructive ( French Revolution) and that tradition needs to be used eg. religion and social hierarchies to discipline behaviour and prevent radical changes to society and chaos

What does this lead to?

Society becoming anchored by long standing customs , religion and frameworks

How does Oakeshott view liberty?

Oakeshott argues that liberty is acting within a framework of established laws which does impose a collective purpose or common goal on individuals and that it is the Therefore a civil association is employed to enforce a general set of agreed upon rules rather than an enterprise association whereby individuals may be directed towards a general goal like ‘equality’

What does this lead to?

Limited, restrained government: The state’s role shrinks to maintaining procedures, preventing coercion, and enforcing fair rules. It does not guide moral, economic, or social ends.

Why is Rand’s view on liberty so unique?

Rand takes a lot more of a individualist view to rights arguing that liberty is based on a man’s individual rights so one must uphold their right to liberty, life and property to maintain their liberty and happiness. Therefore, for her due to the presence of these rights (not made by society but inherent to the individual) that certain actions are seen as wrong. Moreover, she was against the idea of collective rights arguing that only individuals can have rights

What does this lead to?

A society where individual rights are fully protected through capitalism, enabling a merit-based hierarchy and minimizing coercion as exchange and trade is free and so voluntary and so things can’t be done without consent.

Tradition

How does Burke view Tolerance and Tradition?

Burke’s criticism of the French Revolution was grounded on the importance of tradition as a guide to action by saying ‘the individual is foolish but the species is wise’ he realised that by tearing the organic frameworks that had been laid out over time in favour of abstract principles we were abandoning the practices of the past that represents the best that has been thought of. Moreover, he did not believe in absolute tolerance but only favoured the tolerance of ideas that favoured societal stability .

What did Oakeshott say about Tradition and Tolerance?

For Oakeshott tradition is a ‘flow of sympathy, understood but not expressed and a practice not fully understood even by those who engage in it’ so for him tradition was not a set of fixed rules but a set of inherited practices that had developed over time and so for him change isn’t rejected; it just has to occur within the flow of existing practices rather than through sudden, rationalist redesign.

What did this lead both key thinkers to believe for society?

They were against the attempt to plan a state based on abstract principles but encouraged the development of society based along pragmatic lines and so what has worked before and what might work in the context.

What did Rand say about Tradition and Tolerance?

Rand argued that ‘the new thinkers are always hated by those who cling to the past’ and so tradition( especially religious or collectivist ones) represents a form of intellectual stagnation whereby individuals accept ideas without questioning their rational basis as human progress comes from innovation and thinking , tradition inhibited this progress.

STATE

Purpose of the State

How does Hobbes view the purpose of the state

He views the purpose of the Leviathan state as something needed to preserve peace for all people as in the state of nature people are forced into a position of war vs all and that through provision of law by a single sovereign power you can avoid the state of nature and people can be protected by laws, hence contracts can be maintained between people and so peace and order is kept

What does this lead to?

A strong, centralised, unquestionable authority to prevent civil war whereby people surrender their freedoms

How does Oakeshott view the purpose the state?

He argued that the state’s role is not to direct us towards the attainment of some utopia with social progress but that it is merely ‘to keep the ship afloat ‘ in the ‘boundless and bottomless sea’ and so the state should act in a pragmatic way doing what is need to maintain society rather than sticking to dogmatic principles as what to the state should achieve and so social cohesion is maintained.

As a result of this who did Oakeshott criticise?

He criticised politicians for sticking to the politics of faith and getting involved in projects in which they had little understanding or control eg. the actions of Atlee’s post war labour government (Nationalisation, NHS etc) and so he thought that the state should just act as referee

How did Rand see the purpose of the state?

Rand argues that ‘the only proper purpose of a government is to protect man’s rights’ as individuals are the possessors of individual rights the duty of the government was purely to protect individual rights itself against force, fraud and coercion and that by overstepping this role eg. Regulating the economy they would be violating individual freedom.

Origins of the State

What does Hobbes believe about the origins of the state in terms of the social contract?

For Hobbes although he agrees with the social contract, he describes it as more of a ‘covenant’ as society cannot exist prior to the state due to ‘solitary , nasty , brutish and short’ nature of life prior to the state with there being no society but only individuals pursuing survival and so each individual has to simultaneously make a covenant between themselves to bring the state in into existence, hence its not really a social contract as it isn’t a two-way deal — it’s a collective submission, making sovereign power absolute.

What does Burke say about the origins of the state in terms of the social contract?

For Burke society is a partnership “between those who are living, those who are dead, and those who are to be born.” And so he rejects the idea of a mechanistic state which can be engineered, planned, and fixed through rational design rather than evolved tradition as the state is not a creation of rational agreement or a contract, but as an organic institution rooted in tradition, experience, and continuity, evolving to preserve social order.

What does this lead to?

This leads to a stable, ordered society whereby the state and social institutions are seen as trustworthy because they are inherited and refined over generations. Citizens owe loyalty not because of a formal contract but because they are part of an intergenerational partnership.

What does Nozick say about about the origins of the state and the social contract?

He disagrees with the idea that there is a general social contract but instead believes everyone goes shopping for their rights protections which for Nozick involves a competitive market of suppliers of rights protections against any potential rights violators. The rights protections purchased by citizens would lead to competing suppliers of rights protection to join in agreement to define the boundaries of their clients and how to settle disputes. This was called the dominant protective association which would then develop into a minimal state without violating rights as people are not forced to join these associations.

What does this lead to?

Maximum freedom and choice for individuals with a complete decentralised authority as law enforcement and dispute resolution are handled by multiple private agencies rather than a single state with individuals having maximum liberty to choose their protection and enforcement mechanisms.

State and Democracy

What did Hobbes believe about how the state should be?

Hobbes believed the state needed to be absolutist and that its decisions would be binding on the whole population with the population having no recourse to rebellion if they disagreed. This was because as rational individuals people recognise the existence of a single sovereign as better for them than the state of nature as without this there would be competing sovereignty with the for war of all mentality. As a result Hobbes believed that democracy whereby the sovereign could be held accountable was as unstable form of government.

How does Burke view the state and democracy?

Burke views the state as an inherited, slowly evolving partnership grounded in tradition, and he believes only certain kinds of representatives are competent to preserve it. Burke argues that representatives must act as trustees who use independent judgement rather than obeying shifting public opinion. He thought this independence was best secured through property: property owners were economically stable, less vulnerable to corruption, educated, and tied to long-term national interests. Their social position rooted them in the customs and institutions that safeguard the state’s continuity, to avoid the mistakes France.

What does this lead to?

This produces a politics that is cautious, sceptical of radical reform, and resistant to sudden democratic impulses.

How does Rand view the state and democracy?

Rand argued that democracy could be beneficial but also oppressive she claims that democracy acts as a form of collectivism which denies individual rights as by prioritising the majority you put limits on the individual and their autonomy

What does this lead to?

A limited government much like the US which is guarded by a constitution with the majority having no say over the governing rights.

ECONOMY

Private Property

What does Burke believe about private property?

Burke argues that “the power of perpetuating our property in our families is one of the most valuable” rights in civil society because it links people across generations and encourages a long-term sense of stewardship and concern for maintaining what they have inherited, which fosters responsibility rather than impulsive political behavior. This stability nourishes the network of local institutions—churches—that shape citizens’ character via the little platoons

What does this lead to?

A stable social order whereby people are vested in the future.

How does Nozick view private property?

For Nozick the protection of private property is important as if you have legally acquired private property you have the right to decide what to do with it and other people’s interference is immoral . Moreover, he says that every person has property in of themselves and so can decide , over their labor, what they decide to do with their lives and that if any takes away the fruits of their labor that is wrong.

How does Rand view private property?

In The Virtue of Selfishness, she argues that to live, a person must produce values, and therefore must have the right to gain, use, and dispose of what they create. She famously declares that “without property rights, no other rights are possible,” meaning that freedom of speech, movement, or association cannot exist if one lacks control over the physical spaces and tools needed to exercise them.

Taxation and Regulation

How does Burke view redistribution?

He rejected extensive state-led redistribution because he believed society is an organic hierarchy in which inequalities naturally reflect different roles and responsibilities. For Burke, the state attempting to impose equality would be dangerously rationalistic and destabilizing. Instead, he supported a paternalistic approach rooted in noblesse oblige to provide commercial liberties—the belief that those with wealth and social status have a moral duty to care for the less fortunate. This combined cultural tradition with the avoidance of the single minded pursuit of profit

How does Nozick view Redistribution?

He argued that redistribution is morally illegitimate. Central to his libertarian philosophy is the doctrine of self-ownership: individuals own their bodies, labor and the property they acquire. From this, Nozick develops his entitlement theory, which states that wealth is just, as long as it is acquired fairly and transferred voluntarily. Any attempt by the state to engage in redistribution—particularly through taxation—forces individuals to give up the fruits of their labor

How does Oakeshott view redistribution?

Oakeshott was not guided by strict ideological principles but by a belief that the role of government is to maintain order and help individuals navigate life’s practical challenges. Oakeshott did not support large-scale, rationalistic redistributive schemes designed to impose equality, because these rely on abstract theories rather than “practical knowledge” and risk destabilizing society. However, he did not reject redistribution entirely. Instead, Oakeshott accepted limited, pragmatic welfare measures if they helped preserve social stability and prevented hardship. This aligns with his view of the state as a “civil association”

What did Burke say about state intervention in the economy?

He claimed that due to the limited intellectual knowledge of individuals that the government should engage in abstract principles to deliver eg. (Atlee) instead he decided the market should be free to reflect society and that little market forces should be there to stop enslaved people etc and focus on demand and supply

What is Capitalism?

Capitalism is an economic system in which private property and free markets dominate, individuals can own and trade goods and services, and prices are largely determined by supply and demand rather than the state.