theme 4 italy

since the founding of the Fascists, Mussolini placed foreign policy high on his agenda…what were 3 of his foreign policy aims?

1. create an empire of greatness to rival western powers (including African colonies to strengthen control of Libya
2. prestige of italy need to increased after mutilated victory
3. foreign policy linked to autarky (new colonies would make italy rich in natural resources)

what occurred on 27th August 1923? and what was Tellini and his 4 aides part of?

Corfu incident - Italian general, Enrico Tellini & his four aides were assassinated in Greece

* They were part of a a League of Nations mission to establish the location of the border between Greece and Albania

What did Mussolini do following the corfu incident?

made extensive demands to Greece - including an official apology

what were 3 of the demands Mussolini made to Greece following the corfu incident?

1. the attendance of members of the Greek government as the funeral of the assassinated men
2. a payment of 50 million lire from the Greek government as compensation
3. arrest of those involved and their execution

how did the Greeks respond to Mussolini demands? and then what did Mussolini do on 31st August?

Greeks refused terms - Mussolini ordered the occupation of Corfu on the 31st August

how was the invasion of Greece in August 1923 successful? (2 ways)

1. Greece was ordered to pay the indemnity (compensation)
2. Mussolinis actions gained support / celebrated by Italian nationalists + the elite including the head of the navy

what was the reality of the Corfu incident with the League of Nations?

League of Nations backed by Britain ordered the withdrawal of Italian forces and Mussolini was forced to comply since they could not challenge the forces of the British navy

evidence from the head of the navy that the Italian navy was weak, during the Corfu incident?

head of navy: di Revel = said navy unable to last 48 hours against GB

what 2 things did the Corfu incident reveal?

1. Italy could not claim equal power status
2. constraints on foreign policy + how international orgs posed a threat to Mussolini’srole as dictator

How was Mussolini successful In 1924?

following signing of the Pact of Rome, led to the ceding of Fiume to Italy

* this return gained Mussolini prestige / popularity

what did the success of Fiume lead Mussolini to think?

led him to believe he could dominate Yugoslavia

What was Mussolini presented with in 1924 with regards to Yugoslavia and why was this?

Mussolini was presented with the opportunity to pressurise Yugoslavia into accepting Italian dominance → when Ahmed Log took power in Albania

* Zog received financial and political support from Fascist Italy

what did Mussolini sign in 1926 and what did this mean for expansion? with regards to Yugoslavia and Zog?

Italy signed Treaty of Friendship with Albania

* confirmed Albania as an Italian satellite state
* first step to expansion

what was the purpose of the Locarno treaties in 1925 and who attend?

significant conference of representatives from GB, FRA, DEU + Italy

* attempt to ease rising tensions with Europe

how were the Locarno treaties of 1925 proven successful for Mussolini (2 ways)?

1. German’s Western borders were confirmed
2. demilitarised Rhineland zone confirmed

In 1928, Mussolini signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact - what did this mean?

outlawed war as a means of resolving conflict between powers

how many powers signed the Kellogg-Briand pact?

27 on August 1928

why did relationships between Fascist Italy and other EU powers waver in the 1920s and early 1930s?

Mussolini was torn between trying to maintain cordial relations with all the powers while having expansionist goals

what was Mussolini wary of and how did he remedy this?

wary of straining relations with Britain and France. He portrayed himself as supportive of their interests, with the following actions:


1. Italy remained a member of the league of nations
2. Mussolini signed the Locarno pact
3. He signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact

what was the reality of Mussolini and Britain and France? (2 points)

despite signing pacts (Locarno, Kellogg), he was not fully committed to these nations

* he savoured being part of these agreements since it added to his international prestige
* hoped his actions would win him favour with GB + FRA leading to concessions for italy

how did Mussolini begin to mix with Germany in the 1920s? and why?

* Mussolini began to provide financial support to right wing political groups in hopes that a government would then emerge which would be sympathetic to fascism

what did Hitler announce he was creating and what did this lead Mussolini to do?

* Hitler announced Germany was creating its own Air Force, the Luftwaffe + was rearming → all contravened the TofV
* So Mussolini called a meeting with GB, FRA to discuss Nazi actions

what was arranged in 1935 against the nazis? and who attended?

a conference to discuss Nazi actions:

* French foreign minister
* British PM: Ramsay Mcdonald

The conference at Stress led to the creation of the Stress Front…what did this mean? (3 points)

1. GB, FRA + Italy jointly criticised German re-armament → directly contravened TofV
2. agreed to cooperate to prevent any individual country from abandoning a former peace treaty
3. would support Austria remaining independent

why was the Stressa front beneficial to Mussolini? (2 ways)

1. marked a high point in the co-op with GB+ FRA → by hosting the conference Mussolini depicted himself as a great statesman

How did the Stress Front break down as a result of the British action in 1935?

* British government signed Anglo-German naval agreement with Germany in June 1935 without consulting Italy / France
* Mussolini used this as an excuse to abandon the agreements made at the Stress Front

what were mussolini’s motives for cooperation with GB + FRA? and what did he hope to do?

hoped to pursue his key aim of imperial expansion in North Africa

* he hoped to exploit British + French fears regarding Germany to gain concessions from GB + FRA when attempting to expand Italian colonies

what were two political causes of the Abyssinian war?

1. Mussolini believed that Britain and France would allow this colonial aggression in exchange for his support against Germany’s revision of Versailles.
2. Mussolini was angry Italy had not been given ownership of Germany’s African provinces in the TofV

what were two economic causes of the Abyssinian war?

1. the invasion would help the economy as it would fuel Italian industry
2. Abyssinia has many resources (gold + minerals) which Mussolini wanted. → linked to autarky

what was a political cause of the Abyssinian war?

The Abyssinian army was weak, only possessing spears + refiles made in 1874 - unable to prevent any challenge from Italian army

what was public response to the invasion of Abyssinia?

public protest against invasion: called league of nations to take action

when did Mussolini launch the invasion on Abyssinia?

October 3rd 1935

how did Italy enter battle with Abyssinia and how were they clearly at an advantage?

* launched full attack with 600,000 soldiers
* Abyssinias no match for well equipped Italian army with tanks, planes + poison gas

when during the Abyssinia war did Italians capture Adowa and why was this significant?

* 6th October
* symbolically important since Adowa was a site where Italian forces had suffered a humiliating defeat by Abyssinia tribesmen in 1896

how did the League of Nations stagnate the progression of Italy in Abyssinia?

banning weapons sales and sanctions on rubber and metal imports → relatively limited

what was the outcome of the Abyssinia war in may 1936?

without any real opposition Italy captured Abyssinia’s capital and conquered whole of Abyssinia

2 ways the Abyssinia war was positive for Mussolini?

1. war was easily won with few casualties
2. defeat at Adowa had been avenged & Mussolini was hailed for creating a new Italy

how many Abyssinians died compared Italian casualties?

10 Abyssinias for every Italian casualty

how expensive was the Abyssinia war?

13\.5 million lire

3 negative impacts of the Battle of Abyssinia?

1. damaged rep of italy - brutalists using corruption / repression to rule Abyssinia
2. Abyssinias waged a Guerilla war until 1941 (not accept outcome of war)
3. 250,000 troops to remain there - problem at outbreak of WW2

who praised the victory in Abyssinia (2 groups)

1. Catholic Church - ops to spread catholicism in Abyssinia
2. Nationalisst - gained more land

how did the Abyssinian war effect relations between GB, FRA + Italy?

broke down: both FRA + GB both recognised the need to support the League of Nations to prevent further aggression by Mussolini

why were GB + FRA reluctant to take action against Italy after Abyssinian war?

feared pushing Italy closer to Germany

what further undermined the relations between FRA /GB + Italy? but why was there confusion with this?

Britan and France agreed to support economic sanctions against italy

* certain items eg: oil were exempt from sanctions

AND:

* lack of clarity between GB + FRA seen further in Hoare-Laval pact stating Mussolini could retain large areas of Abyssinia, but a smaller Abyssinia would be created

what did Mussolini decide to do in 1936?

support general Franco who was embroiled in a civil war against supporters of a second Spanish republic

what were 3 reasons Mussolini entered into the Spanish war?

1. Franco was a Nationalist + Mussolini wanted to help fuel the spread of authoritarian governments to weaken the left
2. If Franco was successful, Italy would gain an ally in the Med = undermining France
3. Mussolini not want to be seen as subservient to Hitler who was already helping Franco

how many troops did Mussolini send to help Franco?

75,000

how many fighter planes / bombers did Mussolini send Franco?

planes: 400

bombers: 200

how did the outcome of the Spanish civil war differ from that of Abyssinia?

the Spanish civil war has none of the positive consequences of Abyssinia

what were 2 economic consequences of the Spanish civil war?

1. lira further devalued
2. cost 14 billion + raise in taxes

what were 2 military consequences of the Spanish Civil war?

1. army weaker than it was in 1936
2. 3,266 dead + 11,000 wounded

how did public opinion turn against Mussolini following the Spanish civil war? evidence of this?

* public opinion in Western democracies turned
* widespread sympathy for Spanish republic

evidence there was widespread sympathy for Spanish republic after Spanish civil war?

40,000 volunteers joined the International Brigade to fight for Spanish Republican cause in Spain

STRESA FRONT BREAKDOWN HERE

what had Britain and France planned to give Mussolini….and what were the conditions of this? why was it dropped?

* Britain and France negotiated to give Mussolini 2/3 of Abyssinia in return for maintenance of the Stress Front
* the British public found out and public opinion turned leading to the plan being dropped

what was Mussolini convinced of that undermined the relationship between GB and France further?

He was convinced that the League of Nations sanctions had been promoted by the British

how did the Spanish civil war undermine the relationship between GB + FRA further?

* what were Mussooini’s motives?
* and what did he do that angered the British?

* Mussolini aimed at undermining the French influence in the Med
* during the war, Italian submarines disguised as Spanish, sunk neutral ships in the Med angering the GB government

what did Italy then do in 1938 to anger British further after Spanish civil war?

Italian bombing raid on Spanish ports, sinking 11 British ships

Despite Spanish hostility to the British, they were determined to have some arrangement with Mussolini….what was signed as a result of this in January 1937? and what did this confirm?

‘Gentlemans agreement’

* confirmed the status quo in the Med and limited Italy’s intervention in the Spanish civil war

How was the Gentleman’s agreement undermined?

Mussolini simply ignored it

How was German and Italian relations furthered in terms of Italian weakness? and what happened form 1936 on..?

German was happy to advantage of Italy’s economic problems

* from 1936 Italian exports became reliant on German markets

How was German and Italian relations furthered in November 1937?

Italy became part of the Anti-Comintern pact with German and japan

* claimed to est. mutual support in case of agression from the Soviet Union

what 2 things confirmed the end of the Stress Front? (one in 1937)

1. Mussolini withdrew Italy from League of Nations in 1937 claiming it was an org against Italy
2. anti-comintern pact alongside germany

How was the image of Italy weakened alongside Germany in 1938?

1938: hitler moved against Austria and crossed the border = process of Anschluss

* showed Germany was clearful more powerful

what happened at the Munich conference in 1938 and how did this further undermine Italys relations with Germany?

* Mussolini apparently played a role I helping broker the deal that the Sudetenland land to Germany avoiding a war
* reality Mussolini shown to be subservient to Germany

(domestic tension) what was the highly unpopular policy regarding workers and how many were transferred by 1945?

highly unpopular policy that transferred Italian workers → Germany

* reached 500,000 by 1945

when these workers were sent to Germany how were they treated? and what did this show about Mussolini?

* workers treated poorly by Germans who had a condescending attitude towards Italians
* many Italians viewed this as Mussolini being subservient to Hitler

what was domestic tension like with regards to military spending between 1935-1939?

1935-1939: military spending accounted for 80% of the increase in state deficit and the sqquze on middle class incomes / savings to pay for government expenditure

(domestic tension) what was the problem with the battle for grain?

contributed to worsening diet among Italian population

what was domestic tension like with regards to anti-semitism in 1938?

1938 anti-semitism policies unpopular with many → sight of Italian military trying to copy Germans

what did the quest for autarky mean?

consumer products became more expensive

* as domestic Italian industry produced goods that would have been cheaper to purchase from international markets

when was the Pact of steel signed?

22nd May 1939

what did the pact of steel represent?

a formla alliance between Germany and Italy

what was Italys position upon the outbreak of ww2?

italy remained neutral upon the outbreak of ww2

what was the primary reason for Italian neutrality ww2? (2 explanations in this)

Italy was not ready for war:

* Abyssinia invasion + supporting Franco left economy weak and forced depleted
* economy / industrial sectors were unprepared for war

During Italy’s neutral position in war, Mussolini presented hitler with a list of supplies he claimed Italy would need to be ready for war? what are examples of demands made?

* 170 million tonnes of goods
* 6 million tonnes of coal
* 2 million tonnes of steel 
* 150 planes 

what was a reason for neutrality in war, due to the feeling of betrayal?

* Germany began to make a secret agreement with the USSR
* Mussolini viewed this as a betrayal of the Pact against Communism

who warned Mussolini against joining the war?

the Vatican and Victor Emmanuel

why was Mussolini becoming increasingly frustrated with Italian neutrality in war?

* examples of H success?

seeing Hitlers rapid victories

* conquering the Netherlands

why did Mussolini choose to enter war on the side of Germany due to ideological reasons?

Mussolini linked Fascism with militarism and aggression

* ideology would look weak if they chose to remain neutral in an a European war

why did Italy join ww2 on the side of Germany as a result of expansionist aims?

Mussolini believed that by aligning with Germany, Italy could acquire territories and resources through military conquest, which would help achieve his expansionist goals.

why did Italy join ww2 on the side of Germany as a result of pressure from Germany?

The two countries had signed the Pact of Steel in 1939, a military and political alliance that required mutual support in times of war.

why did Italy join ww2 on the side of Germany as a result of opportunities?

Mussolini saw an opportunity to capitalize on the early successes of Nazi Germany in the war. In the early stages of the conflict, Germany appeared to be victorious, and Mussolini believed that Italy could gain from this success by joining the war on the Axis side.

why did Italy want to join war as a result of expansionist aims?

* gained news France was on verge of defeat, presumably GB next

He wanted territory in Balkans, Africa and in the Med

* realised if he wanted to be part of these post-war negotiations he needed to join war

when did Mussolini declare Italy would be joining war on the side of Germany?

10 June 1940

why was Italys entry into war with Germany referred to as the parallel war?

Italy would be concentrated on Med + North Africa

Germans: focus on Eastern Europe

what did France do on the 17th of June?

France requested an armistice with Germany even before Italian troops had to attack

when did Mussolini meet with Hitler and to do what following the armistice with France?

on the 17th June: set out Italys demands for Corsica, savoy, nice

what were 3 failures Italy experienced at the start of war?

* ill equipped seen at Alpine campaign in 1940
* by 1941 Italy lost Eritrea, Somalia + Abyssinia
* British advancement into Libya only stopped when supported by Germany

what happened on the 21st June 1940?

it was announced Germany would sign an armistice with French

what did Italy do following the announcement of the Armistice between France and Germany?

Italy launched an offensive attack along the Alpine Front

what were 2 ways the Italian army was poorly equipped for the Alpine attack?

* troops lacked proper clothing
* Air Force lacked bombs to destroy French fortifications

how was Alpine attack unsuccessful due to territorial gains?

only captured 13 unimportant villages

when did Germany sign the armistice with the French?

22 June 1940

what did Mussolini hope would result from the armistice with France? but what was the reality?

hoping to gain Tunisia, Corsica and South Western France:

* Mussolini not invited to the armistice and only received a small amount territory (2 towns)

why did Mussolini turn to North Africa?

* Mussolini angered at insignificant agains from French offensive
* attempted to make own gains in North Africa whilst Germany embroiled in war in north Europe

where did Mussolini order troops to go initially in North Africa invasion?

* British Somaliland

what did Mussolini then order the invasion of in 1940 as part of the North Africa invasion why did this cause a problem?

invasion of Egypt + military advance on Suez Canal

* directly challenging British domination in North Africa and lead to counter attack