Bio 211 Exam 1

The Scientific Method, Research Question, Hypothesis, Prediction

Referred to as "Trial and Error"

1) Problem - what grabbed your curiosity?

ex. box with unknown content, decades of observation; piecing together mechanisms, a metaphor for the atom

2) Research question - what am I trying to prove or better yet disprove?

3) Hypothesis and Prediction

ex. Smaller than the box? Is it one object? Multiple objects? Is it light, hard, papery, or noisy?

4) Test each hypothesis (What does this mean?)

ex. continuously disprove; is it a stuffed animal or perhaps a ball wrapped in paper?

5) Evaluate the results

a. The hypothesis is supported

b. The hypothesis isn't supported

6)Continuing tests until...

7)Theory

REALM

R) Repetition and repeatability

- Every condition is easily reached

- Repeated often

E) Experimental Control

- Constant that is measurably consistent

- Used as a constant to compare to

A) Adequate Sample Size

- Amount of participants in a study

- 30 is the magic number "minimum"

L) Limitation of factors

- Very difficult to limit factors

- Indirect causes

Ex. Physiology is a problem in drug studies

M) Measurable Results ( Qualitative or Quantitative )

ex. Pain Scale

Data

Observational DATA

Data is only as good as the experimental design

Theory

After thousands of experimental data correlate and remain cohesive, then does the information become theory

John Dalton

Gold Foil Experiment

1800s

Discovered the nucleus

Element

A atom that contains subatomic particles; protons, neutrons, and electrons; the type of element is determined the number of protons found in atomic nucleus

Atom

A singular particle of an element

Subatomic particles

Protons, neutrons, and electrons

Compound

a structure that contains more than one molecule

ex. Water (H2O)

Atomic Nucleus

consists of protons and neutrons and is located in the center of the atom

Atomic Symbol

the letter/letters that represent an element

Ex. H for Hydrogen

He for Helium

Au for Gold

Atomic Number

The # of protons found in an element

used to determine the order in which elements are arranged on the periodic table of elements

Mass Number

The number of protons and neutrons found in an element

Isotopes

A deviation in the number of neutrons in relation to protons

Ex. 39 protons and 40 neutrons is an isotope because there is one more neutron than there is protons

Atomic Shells

The electron cloud encompasses the nucleus with electrons

Orbitals

The flight pattern of an electron, essentially a 3d map of where the electron could be; S, P, D, and F orbitals are used to describe it’s particular shape.

Valence Shell

The outer most level in an atom’s shell; typically used as a means of determining the reactivity of an element, for example sodium is an extremely reactive element because it has a valence shell consisting of 1 electron which allows it to react to many elements.

Octet Rule

It is typical for valence shells to have a capacity of 8 electrons which would render it complete and lower it’s reactivity.

Covalent Bond

Covalent bonds are the sharing of electrons, typically consists of elements on the right side of periodic table.

the amount of bonds indicate the strength

1. h-h weakest (single)

2. o=o middle (double)

3. n-=n strongest (triple)

Hybrid orbital geometry

Tetrahedral

Ex. Carbon centers

Molecular Shape

Where on one atom another can bond is geothermic and specific

ex tetrahedral is a 4 sided pyramid

Ionic Bond

Electron Robbery, an electron(s) is taken from another element in order to complete it’s valence shell

ex. Sodium Chloride composes of Na and Cl in which the electron is taken from the sodium and put into the valence shell of the chlorine causing Na to become Na+1 (the +1 indicating a positive charge due to the number of protons being greater than electrons) and Cl to become Cl-1 (the -1 indicating a negative charge due to the number of electrons being greater than protons).

Hydrogen Bond

Colloquially referred to as FON bonds

1) Hydrogen is covalently bonded to F,O,N

2) That H becomes weakly attracted to another F,O,N

3) Polar covalent bonds - a result of partial

Van Der Waal Interactions

1) Long polymers - chains of carbon

2) temporary charges in regions, fluctuates

Potential Energy

the amount of energy stored in the bonds of molecules

PE = mgh

m= mass

g= gravity

h= height

Kinetic Energy

Energy associated with objects in motion; movement

KE=1/2MV²

Water

H2O, universal solvent

Hydrophilic

Attracts water

Hydrophobic

Repels water

Polar/Non-Polar

Polar is distinctly negative and positive (indicating polar ends, think north and south pole)

Nonpolar has no negative or positive ends, uniformly charged.

Ionic/Non-Ionic

Ionic - cation and anion, cation being positive and anion being negative; refer to ionic bonding.

Non-ionic - covalent bond

Cohesion

Waters ability to stick to itself

ex. surface tension

Adhesion

Waters ability to stick to surfaces

ex. capillary action

pH scale

amount of hydronium and hydroxide ions found in a solution

Acidic, Basic, Neutral

Acidic 1-6 (high hydrogen ion concentration)

Neutral 7 (equal amount)

Basic 7-14 (high hydroxide ion concentration)

Hydrogen Ion (H+)

Hydrolysis breaks water into H+ and OH- ions

Hydroxide Ion (OH-)

Hydrolysis breaks water into H+ and OH- Ions

Buffer

A solution that does not change in pH when adding an acid or base. Reverse acidity or reverse alkalinity.

Solution, Solvent, and Solute

Solution is a mixture of a solvent and solute ex. salt water

Solvent is what the solute is dissolved in ex. water

Solute is what is being dissolved, ex. salt

Dissolve

Solute → Solvent = Solution

Molecular Formula

The use of element symbols to write the composition of a molecule; h2o is the molecular formula for water

Structural Formula

A graphic of what a compound looks like

ex. H2O is the molecular formula

H-O-H is the structural formula

Organic Compounds

Only produced by living things

contains carbon atoms

typically composed of C,H,O,N,P, and S

highly variable in size and shape

Hydrocarbons

Typically referred to as the skeleton

made of carbon and hydrogen

it is the simplest of organic compounds

are hydrophobic

ex. H-C-C-H

Isomers

Constitutional isomers - also referred to as structural isomers; contain the same molecular formulae but different connectivity.

Ex. H-C-C-F vs C-F-C-H

Stereoisomers - Same type of bonding but different spatial positions.

• a diastereomer is a change in one or more chiral centers but not all

  • R, R, R → R,S,R→D

  • R,R,R → S,S,S→EN

• Meso compounds have complete changes but are identical in the molecular formula

• forward, forward vs back, back

Ex. Enantiomers are mirrored over a chiral center

Configurational (Geometric) - bonds that are not easily interconverted, meaning they are stable; can only be changed via breaking bonds

“Cis” (Z) isomer

• always diastereomers

• same side

• =

“Trans” (E) isomer

• always diastereomers

• opposing

• /

Chiral Compounds

• enantiomers, mirror image molecules

• a chiral center

  • asymmetric carbon

Louis Pasteur

-tartaric acid salt test determined that there was enantiomers based off of optical activity

Optical Activity

“d” = “+” right form

“l” = “-” left form

racemic mix - no optical activity

Functional Groups

refer to worksheets, organic compounds

Polymer

a chain of repeating monomers

ex. starch is a chain of glucose, a monomer

Monomer

basic unit

ex. glucose

Dehydration Synthesis

H+ and OH- are attracted to each other at the ends of their chain, this leads to them bonding to form H2O which is separated from their respective chains causing them to merge

Hydrolysis

Water is constantly in motion as it is a liquid, as such hydrogen and hydroxide is constantly created as a result of water breaking apart.

Simple Carbohydrate

simple sugars

ex. glucose

Complex Carbohydrate

complex sugars

ex. starch

Glycosidic Linkage

Oxygen between monomers

Mono, Di, Oligo, Poly

Mono - One

Di - Two

Oligo - 2<x<10

Poly - more than x>10; massive numbers

Saccharides

fancy word for sugar

Lipids

macromolecule that encompasses triglycerides, sterols, and phospholipids; they do not contain a monomer thus making them NOT POLYMERS; their function revolves around moving and storing energy, hormones, and nutrient absorption.

Triglycerides

Consists of one glycerol molecule and three fatty acid chains

Ester linkage

Carboxyl group in the fatty acid chain is attracted to the glycerol through the hydroxides along the side which results in dehydration synthesis

Glycerol and Fatty Acids

Glycerol is an alcohol 3-C

Fatty acid chains are hydrocarbons with a carboxyl end

Both combine to form triglycerides

Saturated vs Unsaturated Fats

Saturated means that the carbons are single bonded to one another meaning that their structure is linear

ex. butter

Unsaturated means that one or more carbons are double bonded to each other which causes their structure to become bent

ex. olive oil

Sterols

4-carbon ring structure

cholesterol

steroid hormones

function involves

1) cell membranes

2) chemical messengers aka hormones

Proteins

Polymers of amino acids

the most complex macromolecules

Amino Acids

structure is uniform

has an amino group NH2 and Carboxyl Acid group COOH

twenty different amino acids

10 essential/10 nonessential

Each amino acid has a specific side chain which changes its purpose

Peptide Bonds

C-OH + H-N → C-N + H2O (DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS)

Nucleic Acids

RNA and DNA

Ribonucleic Acid

and Deoxyribonucleic Acid

Nucleotides

Monomer of nucleic acids

consists of sugar

phosphate functional group

nitrogenous base (4 different molecules)

phosphodiester bonds

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic Acid

RNA

Ribonucleic Acid

Phosphodiester Bonds

Phosphoric Acid bonding with Hydroxyl group

Phospholipids

Major component of cell membrane

Hydrophilic which means it is not a true lipid

Spontaneously assembles into bubbles or sheets

a phospholipid bilayer is a long sheet with water on both sides

Cell/Plasma Membrane

The cell membrane consists of a phospholipid that contains the cell components, and regulates what can enter or leave; this directly correlates to control over metabolic reactions.

Fluid-Mosaic

the cell membrane consists of integral proteins, fats, and other structure that increase the selective permeability

Integral Proteins

the channel through both layers of the bilayer for transport

Peripheral Proteins

the channel through one layer of the bilayer for transport

Cholesterol

A sterol, hormone

Lipid

function is to decrease the permeability of animal cell membranes

retain more water

only found in animals (excluding fish) due to exposure to the sun which causes dehydration

Transport Proteins

Acts as a channel or pore for material to enter or leave; integrated into phospholipid bilayers

ex. lock and key analogy

Membrane Permeability factors

Transport proteins can increase permeability

fatty acids that are unsaturated within the bilayer cause more permeability as there’s more space to enter

fatty acids that are saturated within the bilayer causes less permeability as there’s no gaps

Length is also a deciding factor as it is easier to cross a narrow river than a wide one

the more cholesterol the more gaps are filled which decreases permeability

Passive and Active Transport

Passive transport requires no energy; solutes move through cell membranes by themselves

Diffusion

a) diffusion is the movement from high concentration to low concentration

dialysis - solute through a membrane

• hypertonic → hypotonic

osmosis - water through a membrane

• hypotonic → hypertonic

b) facilitated diffusion

-solutes

-travels through a membrane transport protein

Endocytosis and Exocytosis

Endocytosis is absorbance of material outside of the cell through the cell membrane

Exocytosis is the secretion of material found within the cell through the cell membrane

Robert Hooke

1665 oldest

discovered 1cm lens

the double lens method

etymology of cell was a result of thinking they looked like monk rooms (cells)

Anton Van Leeuwenhoek

Made a better version of Hooke’s lens

made early microscope

looked at sperm

Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann

Cell Theory

• all living things are composed of cells

• cells are the basic unit of life

• cells can only reproduce from themselves

Prokaryotic

• no nucleus

• usually small

• constitutes bacteria, unicellular

• no organelles

Eukaryotic

• contain a nucleus

• usually the biggest

• found in animals, plants, and fungi

• organelles

  • little organ

Archaean

• similar to bacteria

• extremophiles

• similar to eukaryotic genetic characteristics

Nucleus

• the control center of the cell

• contains the DNA

• in the nucleus envelope is chromatin which then forms into chromosomes

• nucleolus is where ribosomes are made

Rough ER

has ribosomes attached to it

transporting material such as proteins

Smooth ER

no ribosomes attached to it

transporting material such as proteins

Ribosomes

sourced from the nucleus

function is to synthesis proteins

Golgi Apparatus

referred to as the Golgi body

proteins are moved into it to be customized into usable shapes, adding lipids, or carbohydrates

Vesicles and Vacuoles

A vesicle is used to transport material such as protein

A vacuole are sac-like structure that stores different materials

Lysosomes

Garbage collectors

Filled with enzymes that break down faulty components

Peroxisomes

found free in the cytoplasm

play a role in metabolism

oxidation reactions

where cholesterol is made

Mitochondria

Powerhouse of the cell

Cellular respiration creates ATP that provides energy

Cytoskeleton

What keeps the shape of the cell, includes microfilaments