GHM summative practice

World Health Organization (WHO) recommendation for fruit and vegetable intake

At least 400g/day (5 portions of 80g each) to reduce the risk of non-communicable diseases.

I² (I-squared)

A statistical measure of heterogeneity in meta-analyses, quantifying the percentage of variation across studies due to heterogeneity rather than chance.

What does I² value of 0-25% indicate?

Low heterogeneity.

What is a systematic review?

A research method that collects, evaluates, and synthesizes evidence from multiple studies on a specific topic, following a structured methodology to minimize bias.

Relative Risk (RR)

A measure of association between exposure and outcome, comparing the risk of an event between exposed and unexposed groups.

What does RR > 1 indicate?

Increased risk in the exposed group.

Components in fruits and vegetables that decrease premature mortality

Fiber, antioxidants (vitamin C, polyphenols, flavonoids, carotenoids), and potassium.

What is a prospective cohort study?

A longitudinal study where participants are followed over time to examine the relationship between an exposure and an outcome.

Why might strawberries be considered 'bad' for you?

Limited evidence of health benefits, lower effects on CVD risk compared to other berries, and pesticide residues.

Fruit with the least beneficial effect on stroke

Tinned fruits (canned fruits) due to added sugars and preservatives.

Fraction of global all-cause mortality attributable to low fruit and vegetable intake

11.3% of global mortality is attributed to low fruit and vegetable intake.

Beneficial effect of dried fruits

Contain high concentrations of fiber, polyphenols, and antioxidants, and reduce the risk of CVD and metabolic diseases.

Do fruits or vegetables have a greater beneficial effect on stroke?

Vegetables have a greater protective effect against stroke than fruits.

What is NOT an advantage of meta-analysis?

Publication bias, heterogeneity of studies, and quality dependence of individual studies.