Introduction to Sociology: Key Concepts, Theories, and Research Methods

Social facts

Products of human interaction that are external to individuals but exert coercive or persuasive power.

Why social facts are central

They distinguish sociology from psychology or philosophy by emphasizing that many aspects of our lives are shaped by societal forces we don't individually create or control.

Examples of social facts

Norms, laws, beliefs, institutions.

Sociological theory

A framework of ideas that help explain social facts and predict patterns or relationships in society.

Examples of sociological theories

Structural functionalism, conflict theory, symbolic interactionism.

Social patterns (data)

Recognizing that sociology looks for regularities across individuals: how people behave similarly under similar social conditions.

Standpoints

Points of view grounded in lived reality of different social positions.

Public Sociology

Using sociological theory and findings to engage with public issues and contribute to social change.

Sociological Imagination

C. Wright Mills's idea: the ability to see connections between personal biography ('private troubles') and wider social/historical forces ('public issues').

Positivism

The belief in empirical/observable, scientific methods (data, experiments) to study society.

Durkheim

Structural functionalism: societies are systems of interrelated parts that maintain stability.

Mechanical solidarity

Social cohesion based on similarity (in simpler societies).

Organic solidarity

Cohesion based on interdependence, division of labor (in more complex societies).

Marx

Conflict theory: social structure is shaped by conflicts over resources, power, class.

Crises of capitalism

Contradictions (e.g. exploitation, alienation) that lead to instability, possibly revolution.

Weber

Protestant work ethic: cultural values (e.g. discipline, frugality) that helped shape the development of capitalism.

Rationalization

Increasing emphasis on efficiency, calculability, predictability in modern life.

Bureaucracies

Formal organizations with hierarchies, rules, impersonality as examples of rationalization.

Social work and Public Sociology

Early sociologists often engaged with social reform (e.g. Martineau, Du Bois).

W. E. B. Du Bois

Quantitative work, statistical studies of Black life, e.g. 'The Philadelphia Negro.'

Ida B. Wells

Research on lynching, journalism + activism.

Anna Julia Cooper

Early work on race, gender, intersectionality; 'A Voice from the South.'

Charlotte Perkins Gilman

Feminist activism and writing; e.g. analyses of gender roles, domestic economics.

Micro

Individual or small‐group interactions; e.g. symbolic interactionism, looking‐glass self.

Macro

Large scale social structures; social institutions, class hierarchies, broad theories like conflict theory, structural functionalism.

Symbolic interactionism

Focus on how people create meaning through interaction; how self is shaped, how symbols are used.

Mead's "I" vs "Me"

"I": spontaneous, unthinking part of the self; "Me": internalized social expectations.

Self‐concept

How you see yourself; your sense of who you are, influenced by others.

Looking‐glass self

Idea by Cooley: we imagine how we appear to others, interpret their judgments, develop self through that.

Self‐fulfilling prophecy

Expectation causes people to act in ways that make expectation come true.

In‐depth interview

A qualitative method: deep, often open‐ended conversations to understand meanings, experiences.

Coding

In qualitative research, organizing data (interviews/text) into themes, categories.

Laboratory experiment - experimental vs control group

Testing hypotheses under controlled settings; experimental group gets treatment/variable, control group doesn't.

Variable

Something measurable that can vary (e.g. income, age).

Causal claims vs correlational

Correlation: two variables move together; causation: one causes change in the other.

Culture

objects, cognitions, practices, embodied

Socialization

How culture / norms / values are transmitted: from people around us, internalization, media influences.

Social construct(tion)

Many things we take as "natural" are constructed by societies (e.g. race, gender).

Cultural competency

The ability to understand and interact across cultural differences.

Beliefs, Norms, Values

Beliefs = what people think true; norms = rules, expectations for behavior; values = what a group considers important, worthwhile.

Agents of socialization

Family, peers, schools, media, religion, work, etc.

Subcultures

Groups within culture that have distinct norms or styles (e.g. goth, gamers).

Social ties and networks

How we're connected; strong vs weak ties; network structure matters.

Homophily

Tendency to associate with similar others.

Culture‐as‐value vs Culture‐as‐rationale

Culture‐as‐value: culture shapes values directly; Culture‐as‐rationale: culture is used to justify practices that may serve power interests.

Ethnocentrism

Judging another culture by one's own standards.

Cultural relativism

Trying to understand a culture on its own terms.

Social network analysis

Quantitative + mapping of social ties and patterns in networks.

Biosocial methods

Methods that connect social variables and biological ones (how social life shapes biology and vice versa).

Distinction

A way of showing status by differentiating oneself via tastes, styles, etc.

In‐group bias

Favoring one's own group over others.

Social identity theory

Likely: categorization, identification, comparison, emotional investment, behavior; (the book gives specific "steps" in constructing identity).

Sexual minorities

Groups with non‐majority sexual orientation identity.

Race vs ethnicity

Race: socially constructed categories often based on physical traits; ethnicity: cultural heritage, language, national origin.

One‐drop vs blood quantum

Different racial constructions (especially in U.S.) where any amount of certain ancestry (one‐drop) counts vs requiring specific proportion (blood quantum).

Sex

biological category

Gender

social/cultural identity/roles

Intersex

biological variation outside typical male/female

Nonbinary

identity outside strictly male or female

Cisgender

gender identity aligned with sex assigned at birth

Transgender

gender identity not aligned with birth sex

Stereotype

generalized belief about a group

Stigma

deeply discrediting attribute that reduces someone in the eyes of society

Explicit prejudice

conscious attitudes

Implicit prejudice

unconscious or automatic

Status

esteem, honor

Class

economic/material resources or wealth

Status beliefs

widely shared social ideas about which groups are high or low status

Status elite

those who hold many socially valued identities or prestige

Intersectionality

how multiple identities (race, class, gender, sexuality, etc.) intersect to shape experience in ways that aren't simply additive

Content analysis

systematic coding of texts/media to find patterns

Meta-analysis

combining results from many studies to find overall trends

Computational sociology

using computational tools (e.g., big data, simulations) for sociological questions

Achieved status

based on actions (e.g. education, job)

Ascribed status

assigned at birth (e.g. race, sex, family class)

Institutions

durable social structures (education, family, law, government); also considered agents of socialization

Hunting-and-Gathering societies

characterized by foraging and small group living

Horticultural societies

characterized by small-scale farming and settled communities

Agricultural societies

characterized by large-scale farming and surplus production

Industrial societies

characterized by manufacturing and urbanization

Postindustrial societies

characterized by service-oriented economies and information technology

Examples of transitions

how industrialization changed class hierarchies, gender roles, urbanization

Social interaction

How people act and react in relation to others; micro‐level processes.

Folkways

Everyday customs.

Mores

Morally significant norms.

Taboos

Strong prohibitions.

Laws

Formally enacted rules with legal consequences.

Policies

Guiding principles, may or may not be legally binding.

Social sanctions

Reactions to norm conformity or deviance; rewards (positive), punishments or social disapproval (negative).

Accounts

Explanations people give for rule breaking or behavior.

Face

Social respectability.

Face‐losing

When one is embarrassed or socially devalued.

Face‐saving

Efforts to restore social standing.

Dramaturgy

Erving Goffman's metaphor: life like theater; people perform roles, manage impressions.

Front stage

Public performance.

Back stage

Private preparation or ways we act off public view.

Marked identities

Identities that are 'marked' (e.g. race, gender when different than default).

Unmarked identities

Identities that are 'default' or unremarked.

Interpersonal discrimination

Discrimination enacted by individuals in interactions.

Ethnomethodology

Study of everyday methods people use to make sense of the social world.