ethics: utilitarianism

what are the two formulations of utilitarianism?

act and rule

who came up with act?

bentham

who came up with rule?

mill

what is utilitarianism?

prescribe actions aiming to maximize happiness and well-being for the affected individuals

. It judges actions based on their consequences, focusing on the greatest good for the greatest number

what are some characteristics of utilitarianism?

• Teleological ethics based on empirical evidence.

• Actions have instrumental value

• Consequences have intrinsic value, ends justify the means

• Pleasure/happiness is the sole good; pain/suffering is the sole evil

how does utilitarianism differ from other ethical theories?

utilitarianism observes we are also by nature benevolent; we take into account the happiness of those affected by our actions. Singer speaks of “equal consideration of interests”.

what is the principle of utility?

the most useful and therefore moral action produces “the greatest amount of pleasure or happiness for the greatest number of people” .

  It seeks the greatest balance of pleasure/good over pain/evil.

what did Bentham think human beings were motivated by?

pursuing pleasure and avoiding pain

-“Nature has placed us under two sovereign masters, pleasure and pain” (Bentham, Principles of Morals and Legislation)

-This is a universal feature of human conduct, thought Bentham

-His theory is a theory of psychological hedonism  where hedonism means ‘pleasure-seeking’

what are the main points of utilitarianism?

• Focuses on actions and consequences rather than intentions.

• States that we should act in a way that will benefit the largest number of people.

• Demands that individuals put aside their own desires and ambitions and do what will benefit society as a whole.

• “It is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and wrong” (Bentham, A Fragment on Government)

how can Bentham’s theory be summarised?

1. A theory of the greatest happiness

2. A theory of intrinsic goodness – pleasure

3. A practical way to calculate the greatest pleasure

how did Bentham say pleasure could be calculated?

• All types of pleasure and pain can be measured on the same scale.

• Pleasures can be compared quantitatively because there is no difference between them.

• Bentham once said that “quantity of pleasure being equal, push-pin (a simple child's games) is as good as poetry."

• What is good and bad for each person is a matter for each person to decide by following the hedonic (felicific) calculus.

what are the characteristics of the hedonic calculus?

-Democratic: "Everybody is to count for one, and nobody for more than one."

-Egalitarian (classless): "No one person's pleasure is greater than another's"

how does Bentham believe goodness can be proven?

through experience (empirically)

what are the seven aspects of calculation in the hedonic calculus?

• Intensity (a more intense pleasure is preferable to a weaker pleasure)

• Duration (pleasures that last are preferable to those that don’t)

• Certainty (if the act guarantees a pleasure, that act is better than one that merely makes pleasure likely)

• Propinquity (if the pleasure is far off in space or time, the act is less right)

• Fecundity (the likelihood that the pleasure or pain will be followed by more pleasures or pains)

• Purity (a pleasure that is mixed with pain is not as good as one that just pleasure)

• Extent (the more people who will enjoy the pleasure, the better the act)

what are some issues with the hedonic calculus?

•Passivity

•Health

•Unreality

•Confusion of pleasure with happiness

•Discuss – the athelete – what si their goal? How do they achieve it? Is it purely about pleasure? Is pleasure different from contentment?

•St Paul “I have learned to be content whatever the circumstances.  I know what it is to be in need, and I know what it is to have plenty. I have learned the secret of being content in any and every situation.” Phil 4.12

what is the summary of Bentham’s view?

• People are motivated by pleasure and pain-avoidance

• The amount of pleasure in the world should be increased

• Laws should increase the amount of pleasure in the community and not increase the amount of pain.

• Punishment should only be used when it is absolutely necessary and should be proportional to the offence; Bentham did not believe in groundless, needless, ineffectual, or expensive punishment.

what type of theory is act utilitarianism?

Act utilitarianism is a teleological or consequentialist moral theory. It holds that the moral quality of an action depends upon the moral ‘good’ of happiness produced by the consequences of any action.

 

Teleological = end (telos) directed

how does act utilitarianism determine if an action is right or wrong?

•An act is right if it maximises happiness and minimises pain of all those involved in an action

•In order to assess the rightness of an action we must look at likely consequences

•This must include the consequences for all those affected by an action

•Note: the misery of one person is allowed if on balance the happiness of the majority outweighs the misery of the individual

why can Bentham’s theory be seen as hedonistic?

-because his theory argues for one intrinsic good, pleasure and one motivation, to pursue pleasure and avoid pain

how did Mill criticise Bentham?

argues Bentham was guilty of some ‘great evils’ in his version

• Bentham didn’t distinguish between higher and lower pleasures. It  was a ‘swinish philosophy’

• Bentham failed to give due weight to social virtues and rules.

• Bentham failed to protect minority rights

what did Mill say about qualitative pleasures?

• “Better Socrates dissatisfied than a pig satisfied’ (Mill).

• Mill argues higher pleasures are morally better than lower pleasures

• Lower pleasures – bodily, often passive

• Higher pleasures - mental and spiritual, active, challenging

• Education would develop the higher pleasures

what is a nobleness of character?

• Mill admits this will need a certain ‘generosity and nobleness of character’. Otherwise why care about the common good? Education for all and the elimination of poverty will help provide the conditions for such virtue to thrive.

• He is coming closer to Aristotle’s idea of eudaimonia - well-being or flourishing.

what is multilevel utilitarianism?

• Level 1: generally follow the rules which society has found promote happiness (conforming tot he fundamental principle which is the GHP)

• Level 2: when there is a conflict of two ‘goods’ then we can (Mill’s example) kidnap a reluctant doctor and get him to our sick friend. We revert to being an act utilitarian for these hard cases.

how is Mill inconsistent when talking about pleasure?

• Is pleasure the only intrinsic good? Mill seems to imply this when he says: “Pleasure and freedom from pain are the only things desirable as ends”;and yet argues: “With much tranquility, many find that they can be content with very little pleasure.”

• Mill also states that virtue is to be desired “disinterestedly, for itself.”

what pleasures did Mill distinguish between?

distinguishing between lower pleasures gained from bodily activity, such as food, sex and drugs, and higher pleasures gained from mental activity, such as poetry, reading, philosophy, music.

why are higher pleasures superior?

overall superior at producing a greater quantity of happiness than lower.

what are the issues with lower pleasures?

Lower pleasures are fleeting, lasting only for the duration of the action that produce them. Furthermore, lower pleasures are costly because they are addictive and tempt people to choose instant gratification, or what Mill calls a ‘nearer good’ over greater goods like health, for example by consuming sugar or drinking alcohol.

• Higher pleasures of the mind have no such ill effects and can have a lasting enlightening effect on a mind which has cultivated a habit of appreciating them.

how does Bentham distinguish between different pleasures?

quantitative approach will judge higher pleasures superior for tending to produce more durable pleasure with less cost than lower pleasures.

how does Mill go further than Bentham with higher and lower pleasures?

claims that the superiority of higher pleasures can be proven not only on quantitative grounds, but a ‘higher ground’ than that, their superior quality.

why can Mill’s view be criticised?

a person who can and has experienced higher pleasures will always prefer them to lower ones.

• plenty of times when mentally cultivated people will occasionally give in to instant gratification or even sink into complete addiction to lower pleasures.

how does Mill respond to this criticism?

that this objection misunderstands his argument.

Everyone prefers the highest pleasures they have been able to experience, but it doesn’t follow that everyone always chooses them over lower ones. The ability to experience higher pleasures requires careful cultivation which is easily lost, either due to falling into addiction, weakness of will/character, external pressures or lack of internal support.

when does rule utilitarianism say an action is good?

if it conforms to a rule which maximises happiness.

what do we have to determine in rule utilitarianism?

following a rule, e.g., like not lying, will promote more happiness than not following it. If so, then following that rule is good.

what is the difference between strong and weak utilitarianism?

Strong Utilitarianism is the view that the rules should be stuck to no matter the situation. Weak Utilitarianism is the view that the rules can be broken if it maximises happiness to do so.

why can strong rule utilitarianism be criticised?

for simply becoming deontological, for abandoning the principle of utility and its consequentialism and becoming an empty deontological theory that follows rules for no good reasons, having abandoned its own supposed meta-ethical grounding.

why can weak rule utilitarianism be criticised?

for in effect reducing into act utilitarianism, since they would judge every action the same. If following a rule such as telling the truth maximises happiness in a situation, then both Act and weak Rule would say to tell the truth. If breaking the rule and lying maximises happiness in a situation, then both act and weak rule would say to lie.

what does Mill call the principle of utility?

the first principle

how did Mill disagree with Bentham on the principle of utility?

Mill disagreed with Bentham’s approach of judging every action by the principle of utility. Mill claimed that happiness is ‘much too complex and indefinite a goal’ for that.

how does Mill solve the issue of calculation?

difficult to calculate which action will maximise happiness.

• Even though that is what constitutes the moral rightness of an action, nonetheless because of our limited knowledge our actual moral obligation is to follow whatever secondary principles humanity’s current level of understanding has produced regarding how to gain happiness and minimise suffering. We can draw on the accumulated knowledge and wisdom of our species on what avoids suffering and produces satisfaction and happiness.

This gives us ‘secondary principles’ which are more general rules and guidelines. These are the product of our civilisation’s current best attempt to understand how to produce happiness → are therefore subject to improvement.

what was Mill’s secondary principle?

the harm principle

what is the harm principle?

people should be free to do what they want so long as they aren’t harming others. Mill argued that each individual is in the best position to make themselves happy and so if we all allowed each other to do what made us happy, society would overall be the happiest it could be.

• "The only purpose for which power can rightfully be exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others.". 

how does Mill argue we solve any possible conflicts between second principle?

we need to apply the first principle

why can it be argued that Mill is a rule utilitarian?

He clearly thinks that it is morally right to do an action that conforms to a rule which experience has shown to maximise happiness.

However, Mill clearly also thinks that sometimes individual actions should be judged to resolve a conflict or applicability issue in rules/principles.

Arguably the question of how exactly to categorise Mill is irrelevant and we could simply conclude that Mill’s Utilitarianism is the perfect synthesis of Act and Rule Utilitarianism

what is an issue with utilitarianism (problems with calculation)?

Utilitarianism seems to require:

• we know can the future.

If the goodness of an action depends on whether it maximises pleasure, then we need to know the consequences of the action before we do it. That seems to require that we know the future → we need to know not only the consequences of an action, but of all the possible actions we could do in a situation.

• we can make incredibly complex calculations about the range of possible actions, sometimes under time-constraints.

Once we know the consequences of all the actions we could do, we then need to calculate the impact they will have on pleasure and pain. Not just in the short, but in the long-term. Worse, we might need to make these calculations in time-sensitive situations.

• That these calculations include the objective measuring of subjective mental states like pleasure and pain.

can only make objective measurements of objective things. The calculations about the amount of pleasure and pain an action will lead to require that we measure subjective feelings, which seems impossible. There is no objective way to measure subjective feelings because we can’t put a ruler next to them.

what is Bentham’s response to issues of calculation?

Bentham claims that an action is right regarding “the tendency which it appears to have” to maximise happiness. So, we actually only need to have a reasonable expectation of what the consequences will be based on how similar actions have tended to turn out in the past.

To further defend Bentham, we could argue that we can measure subjective feelings. In hospital, doctors ask patients how much pain they are in out of 10. Doctors will admit that this is never a perfect indicator, but it is accurate enough to be informative.

what is Mill’s response to the problem with calculation?

We do not need to know the future, nor make incredibly complex calculations, nor measure subjective feelings. We only need to know the secondary principles that our civilisation has, through its collective efforts and experience, judged to be those best conducive to happiness. We then need to simply follow those principles as best we can. For Mill, the moral rightness of an action depends on maximise happiness, but because of the immense complexity of that, our only moral obligation is to just do our best to follow the principles geared towards producing happiness of our society

• Mill is admitting that to perfectly act on the principle of utility is currently impossible → he denies that this means Utilitarianism fails in its requirement as a normative theory to successfully guide action. For that, Utilitarianism can rely on the principles and rules that, to the best of our current knowledge, most produce happiness. Society also ought to be progressive, meaning it should retrospectively assess and improve its principles and rules. This works well enough and in principle can continue to work better as we discover more, biologically, psychologically, sociologically and politically how to maximise happiness.

• cases of a conflict of rules, Mill adopts the same approach as Bentham and says we must judge the individual action by the principle of utility, though Mill adds that we should consider the quality not only quantity of the pleasure it could produce - agrees with Bentham’s point that when judging individual actions, we can base our calculations on what we know of the ‘tendencies’ actions have.

what are the issues with intention and character?

 Utilitarianism only views the consequences of actions as good, not the character (integrity) of the person who performs them.

• goes against the intuition that a person can be a good person. It also has the bizarre effect that e.g stabbing someone could be good if after being rushed to hospital it was found, coincidentally, they had a brain tumour.

• someone who attempts to do good but bad consequences result which were unforeseeable, such as the priest who saved Hitler’s life when he was a child. The way we’d normally solve this problem is to claim that although the action had good consequences, the person’s intentions or character was bad. However, consequentialist theories seem unable to claim that because for them, it is only consequences which are good or bad, not intentions/character.

how does Mill respond to this?

firstly that a person’s character does matter because it will determine their future actions. The stabber should be condemned for his motive because that will prevent them stabbing others in future. The priest should be forgiven because he’s not likely to do anything bad in the future as his character is good.

Secondly, Mill argues that having a good character helps you become happy. Motives and character therefore do matter ethically, though not intrinsically but only insofar as they result in good consequences, in line with consequentialism.

why is utilitarianism consequentialist?

it is the consequences of an action that make it morally good or bad.

what level does act utilitarianism calculate utility?

calculates utility at the level of specific actions. For example, whether an act of stealing is right or wrong depends on whether, in that particular case, stealing increases or decreases utility/pleasure.

what level of rule utilitarianism calculates utility?

calculates utility at the level of general rules. For example, we may calculate that as a general rule stealing results in a reduction of utility/pleasure. And so, even though there may be specific cases where an act of stealing increases utility/pleasure, it is still wrong to steal in those instances because it violates a general rule that increases utility.

what is the tyranny of the majority criticism?

Utilitarianism can justify actions that are clearly morally wrong if enough people get pleasure from them. For example, torturing one innocent person for the pleasure of 100 sadistic people who enjoy watching people in pain.

what is the response to the criticism?

could potentially avoid this issue by arguing that the general rule ‘don’t torture innocent people’ leads to greater utility overall (e.g. because it results in a just and fair society which creates greater happiness overall) and so it is wrong to torture an innocent person even in rare cases where doing so would increase utility.

what is a criticism of utilitarianism - other values other than pleasure?

Robert Nozick describes a thought experiment where you can be plugged in to an ‘experience machine’ that simulates the most pleasurable life possible. Once plugged in, you can’t leave but you believe this is your real life. Despite maximising pleasure, many people would prefer not to go into the experience machine.

This suggests there are other things we assign moral value to besides pleasure, such as being in contact with reality. Further, utilitarianism implies it is morally right to force everyone into the experience machine whether they want to go in or not, because doing so would maximise pleasure. But this seems unfair.

what is the response to this criticism?

Preference utilitarianism says we should maximise people’s preferences, not pleasures. As such, if someone would prefer not to go in the experience machine, that preference would be respected (even if it resulted in less pleasure).

What is the principle of utility also known as?

The greatest happiness principle (an action is good if it produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number)

what are the 6 ideas associated with utility?

- Useful -> principle of usefulness to bring about good consequences

- Focused on pleasure and happiness

- Quantitative -> what is the quantity of pleasure produced

- Egalitarian -> greatest good for the greatest number

- Relativist -> does not depend on absolute laws

What are the concepts of act utilitarianism?

- Principle of utility
- Motivation
- The hedonic calculus

Is act utilitarianism qualitative or quantitative?

quantitative

what is hedonism?

An ethical theory that regards pleasure + happiness as the most beneficial outcome of an action

What did Rachels say about hedonism?

"Hedonism misunderstands the nature of happiness. Happiness is not something that is recognised as good and sought for its own sake’

oversimplifies the complexity of human life people value other things besides pleasure such as justice, friendship and moral integrity

What is the hedonic calculus?

Provides a way of analysing + measuring the pain + pleasure of different consequences

What is done with the calculation?

The balance of this calculation is noted + compared with the balance of pain + pleasure created by the other choices available

What did Bentham say when summing up the hedonic calculus?

"Sum up all the values of all the pleasures on the one side, and those of all the pains on the other"

What are the strengths of act utilitarianism?

- Based on a simple principle (Louis Pojman - "It is simple in that there is only one rule to apply") -> it is flexible + applicable to any situation

- It is calculated mathematically -> in line with the scientific dreams of the Age of Reason

- Rational and doesn't rely on a belief in a supernatural being/superstitions

- It's democratic -> promotes general happiness instead of individual pursuits

- Moral decisions consider minority groups who were previously persecuted -> wrong to persecutes homosexuals because it brings no suffering to other people (Bentham)

Who disagreed with Bentham's act utilitarianism and why?

J.S Mill -> it doesn't consider the different types of pain + pleasure + can justify sadistic torture

What are the problems with act utilitarianism?

- Excuses sadistic torture -> has the potential to justify virtually any act producing extreme results

- It is impractical to suggest we should measure each and every moral choice

- Problems with predicting consequences -> can't predict far reaching consequences so a theory based on consequentialism is unhelpful (Hume - "the effects of an action form part of a chain that stretches into a indefinite future")

how does Daniel Dennett criticise utilitarianism?

- The 3 mile island effect -> impossible to calculate utility as the true consequences of an action are inherently unknowable

t it is impossible to do the calculation that utilitarianism requires because consequences are inherently unknowable. Daniel Dennett describes this as the "Three Mile Island effect”

^{Dennett points out that not only is it impossible to assign a precise utility value to the incident, it is impossible to know whether, ultimately, the near-meltdown that occurred was a good or bad thing}

how does Vardy criticise act utilitarianism?

"utilitarianism relies strictly on its predictive value" + his example of saving a pregnant woman or old man in car accident (In "The Puzzle of Ethics")

how does Bernard Williams criticise act utilitarianism?

Integrity objection -> doesn't consider the inherent integrity of the action itself and the morals the individual follows (suggests they should be abandoned in order to fulfil the greatest happiness principle)

how does Ross criticise act utilitarianism?

If 2 acts have the same result but one was a lie, which one is best to choose -> cannot justify lies + atrocities through utilitarianism

What are the concepts for rule utilitarianism?

- The harm principle
- Higher/lower pleasures
- Liberty + sovereignty of the individual
- Rules based on utilitarianism

What does rule utilitarianism establish?

The best overall rule by determining the course of action which, when pursued by the whole community, leads to the greatest result

Is rule utilitarianism qualitative or quantitative?

qualitative

What was Mill's belief about the greatest happiness principle?

If the principle was quantitative (based on number of people affected and amount of happiness) nothing would stop one person's pleasure being extinguished for the majority

What did Mill say about Bentham's act of utilitarianism?

He argues that there are two types of pleasure (higher and lower) and Bentham's idea is too simplistic -> aiming for something more complex

What did Mill change about Bentham's idea?

Replaced his quantitative measure + focused on qualitative pleasures

What does Mill's approach try to promote?

The common good, general happiness -> is universalistic in outlook

What did Warburton say about Mill's belief about high pleasures?

Not everyone has access to the same opportunities or have the time to "learn to cultivate higher pleasures" -> intellectual snobbery

What is the sovereignty of the individual?

"In the part which merely concerns himself, his independence is, of right, absolute. Over himself, over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign"

-> everyone has authority over themself + freedom to do what they please (links to the harm principle)

What is the sovereignty of the individual also known as?

The liberty principle -> a society which guarantees freedom of choice in private life is a happy society (should only be limited if it causes pain)

what are the strengths of rule utilitarianism?

- Nina Rosenstand -> the harm principle is the foundation of the principle of civil liberties -> is democratic + fair

- Sums up "love your neighbour"

- Secular + relevant in multicultural society

- Mill used to hand out leaflets about contraception -> prevents spread of STDs -> reduces harm

- Allows us to maintain integrity in order to make the best moral decisions -> Mill includes the harm principle, sovereignty of the individual + fairer rules based on utilitarian principles

what are the weaknesses of rule utilitarianism?

- It ensures that most people receive pleasure but it guarantees nothing for minorities -> Alasdair Macintyre argued that the Nazi policy of exterminating Jewish people could be considered good if the greater population thought it pleasurable

- Impractical -> WD Ross - we have more of a duty to our family and friends,

Mackie - doubts that humans can act for the greatest good as we are often selfish,

Hobbes - humanity without authority is "nasty, brutish and short"

- Mill doesn't adequately reconcile public + private interest -> should we sacrifice our own welfare for the greater good? (Barbet)

what is Singer’s preference utilitarianism?

- Defines utility in terms of satisfying people's interests

- Prioritises the more achievable minimisation of pain

- Morally responsible for acts of omission as well as commission

what is one of Bentham’s most famous quotes?

nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. it is for them alone to point out what we ought to do

what does utilitarianism say about outcomes?

• the end has to justify the means

we should perform actions based on predicted consequences - requires prediction of outcomes in order to ascertain the morality of actions

what is the principle of utility?

we should do whatever is useful in increasing overall good and decreasing overall evil

actions should be carried out if they are going to produce happiness and prevent pain

what is rule utilitarianism focused on?

the common good

why would Aristotle support utilitarianism?

quoted ‘Happiness is the meaning and purpose of life, the whole aim and end of human existence’

how is utilitarianism being a secular theory a strength?

is not dependent on belief in God

• makes it appealing and applicable to all people irrespective of religion and can be applied in 21st century societies

how can utilitarianism be criticised due to the naturalistic fallacy?

‘Nature has placed mankind under two sovereign masters’

wrong to make the assumption that what is natural must be good

just because pleasure is something we seem to naturally desire does not mean it should be pinpointed as the end goal of ethics

→ however, does Mill’s rule utilitarianism resolve this with higher/lower pleasures

how is utilitarianism being a ‘swine ethic’ a weakness?

assumes purpose of life is pleasure

Bentham’s has been called this as can permit immoral actions → although not intended and can be answered by Mill’s, worry remains that there are no absolute boundaries to utilitarianism and immoral actions can be permitted in extreme situations

why is utilitarianism an empirical philosophy?

claims happiness or pleasure can be calculated and applied to real life situations

• our senses matter and help us work out goodness

why can it be argued that the naturalism is a strength?

can be judged by other people to prove accuracy and less subjective

• far removed from religion and faith

what are oughts and is’?

an ought is derived from an is → what is the happiest state of affairs is what we ought to create

how can is/ought’s be criticised by the naturalistic fallacy?

a logical fallacy that occurs when people assume that something is good because it is natural.

It's also known as the "is/ought" fallacy because it jumps from statements of fact to statements of value without explanation. 

• The naturalistic fallacy occurs when people make conclusions about reality based on observations of nature without considering whether those observations are accurate - ways people experience please may not be good

→ Moore

but Mill solves this with higher + lower pleasures

how does Williams support natural law?

As it is non-religious, it is attractive during this time when there are many religious ideas. The basics of happiness & pleasure are easy to understand.

how does Dewar support utilitarianism?

Many people automatically make Utilitarian judgements.