Cellular Function

Patho 2026 fall exam 1

osmosis

Passive movement of water/solvent across membrane towards an area of higher concentration (osmotic preassure): low to high

active transport

movement against concentration gradient

lysis

cell burst

crenation

cell shrinks

Differentiation

cells become specialized; stem cells are less differentiated

Cell proliferation

occurs when cells divide and reproduce, PMAT & meiosis

Diffusion

movement of solutes to and area of lower solute concentration

cellular atrophy

decrease in size; Decreasing workload diminishes organelle sizeand lowers energy usage

ex: Leg in a cast= decreased workload= skeletal muscle atrophy

cellular Hypertrophy

decrease in cell size; if persistent, can lower cell functionality; increasing workload increases organelle size and contractility

ex: Chronic hypertension= heart works harder= left ventricular hypertrophy

Hyperplasia

increase in cell number: increases functionality; Increasing workload increases tissue size due to cell proliferation

ex: Hormonal stimulation= endometrial hyperplasia, menstruation

Metaplasia

a pathologic replacement of normal cells with abnormal cells

ex: chronic smoking causing ciliary changes

Displasia

a pathologic mutation of normal cells into abnormal cells

ex: cancer of cervical cells

Apoptosis

Programed Cell death

Occurs through shrinking of cytoplasm followed by condensation of the nucleus

Naturally occurring physiological process

Localized process, destroying individual cells

Often beneficial, although abnormal activity may cause diseases

Involved in controlling cell number in the body

Necrosis

Premature cell death

Occurs through swelling of cytoplasm along with mitochondria followed by cell lysis

Pathological process caused by external agents like toxins, trauma, etc

Affects contiguous cell groups

Always harmful to the organism

involved in the induction of immune system and defending the body from pathogen

Ischemia

low blood flow leading to decreased O2 delivered to cells; if extended then it leads to necrosis

Hypoxia

low O2; Most common cause of cellular injury

Carcinogenesis

initiation of cancer formation

can be impacted by heredity (oncogenes) and carcinogen exposure; has 3 steps:

Initiation: introduction of the agent

Promotion: initiation of uncontrolled growth

Progression: permanent malignant changes

Neoplasm

differentiation where apoptosis doesn’t work; New Growth: uncontrolled and unregulated

Benign tumors

slow, progressive, localized, defined, and differentiated more like host tissue

Detecting cancer

Change in elimination habits: poo

A sore that doesn’t heal

Unusual bleeding or discharge

Thickening or lump in tissue

Indigestion or difficulty swallowing

Obvious change in wart or mole

Nagging cough or hoarseness

Complications of Cancer

Cachexia (wasting- malnutrition dt cancer), fatigue, infection, pain

Anemia, leukopenia( low wbc count), and thrombocytopenia ( low platelet count—> bleeding)

Marfans Syndrome

Autosomal Dominant Disorder that affects connective tissue

incurable, palliative treatment, monitor and reducing complications

Cystic Fibrosis

Autosomal Recessive Disorder of the mucus and sweat glands; Primarily affects the lungs and pancreas (but also affects liver, intestines, sinuses)

Fragile X syndrome

Associated with CGG trinucleotide repeat expansion of the FMR1 gene on the X chromosome (greater than 200 repeats)

Affects synaptic development

Manifests physically as long face; large mandible, ears, and testicles; connective tissue disorders

Manifests mentally as learning disabilities/delays, behavioral issues, or autism spectrum disorders

Cleft Lip/ palate

Improper formation of soft tissues in mouth and lips

Leads to feeding/nutrition issues⚬

Risk factors include maternal smoking, diabetes, and seizure medications

Diagnosed with prenatal ultrasound

Treated with surgery and speech therapy

Trisomy 21

Down’s Syndrome, diagnosed through parental screening and diagnostic testing- extra copy of chromosome 21)

Manifestations include upward slanted palpebral fissures, varying degrees of disability, organ defects/complications, andi ncreased risk of early-onset Alzheimer’s disease

Monosomy X

Turner’s Syndrome, diagnosed in females with partial or complete absence of one X chromosome through serum hormones and genetic tests

Manifestations include streak gonads (nonfunctional ovaries),distinctive physiology (webbing of neck, broad chest and widely spaced nipples), aortic coarctation, but no intellectual

Klinefelter’s Syndrome

(47, XXY) Polysomy X, diagnosed in males with multiple X chromosomes through genetic testing but often undetected)

Manifestations include small testes, hypogonadism, distinctive physiology, and increased vulnerability to osteoporosis and breast cancer